ENGLAND BY
KARL HEINZ GOELLER AND JOCHEN L I S T . REGENSBURG
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
The f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t f r o m A l i c e M i s k i m i n ' s THE RENAISSANCE CHAUCER (New H a v e n and L o n d o n , 1975) s t i l l s u p p l i e s an a p t e p i g r a p h f o r a s u r v e y o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e E n g l i s h 1 5 t h c e n t u r y :
Few h a v e e n t e r e d t h e l a b y r i n t h o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y b e t w e e n 1400 and 1600, and f e w e r s t i l l h a v e emerged a b l e to s a y what t h e y saw. The phenomenon o f m e t a m o r p h o s i s t a k e s p l a c e , b u t no one h a s y e t f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d and d e s c r i b e d how ( p . 1 4 ) .
The t e r m " l a b y r i n t h " a s a p p l i e d t o s c h o l a r s h i p on 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a t u r e i s by no means a m e t a p h o r i c a l e x a g g e r a t i o n . I t d e s c r i b e s r a t h e r f a i t h f u l l y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e v e n t u r e t h a t i s i n s t o r e f o r t h e s c h o l a r d a r i n g enough t o c h a r t an o v e r a l l s u r v e y . T h e r e i s a s y e t no t h r e a d o f A r i a d n e and I s h a l l n o t be a b l e t o s u p p l y o n e . N e a r l y a l l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n a r e h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
A t t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y Symposium h e l d a t R e g e n s b u r g i n 1982, D e r e k P e a r s a l l o f Y o r k s t r e s s e d t h e i n n o v a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e r i o d , and O t t o G r ü n d l e r i t s c l i n g i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l ways and v a l u e s , w h i l e C h a r l e s Moorman r e g a r d e d
i n f l e x i b i l i t y and s t a g n a t i o n as t h e m a i n c r i t e r i a o f t h e e p o c h . A l l p l e n a r y s p e a k e r s c o n g r a t u l a t e d t h e o r g a n i s e r on n o t h a v i n g r e s o r t e d t o t h e o u t d a t e d f o r m u l a o f "The W a n i n g o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s . " b u t t h e y had e v e n l e s s s y m p a t h y f o r t h e m o t t o we had a c t u a l l y c h o s e n : "The T u r n i n g o f t h e T i d e . "
P r o f e s s o r B o s l o f M u n i c h a r g u e d t r e n c h a n t l y t h a t t h e t i d e d i d n o t t u r n b e f o r e t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . We have t o f a c e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y i s s t i l l u n c h a r t e d t e r r i t o r y , n o t b e c a u s e i t i s unknown, b u t b e c a u s e so many e x p l o r e r s h a v e drawn d i v e r g e n t maps. A g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d s y n o p s i s i s n o t y e t i n s i g h t .
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE F I F T E E N T H CENTURY FOR ENGLISH STUDIES
And y e t t h e r e i s no n e e d t o g i v e up a l l hope o f c o m i n g t o g e n e r a l l y v a l i d c o n c l u s i o n s . E v e n a q u a n t i t a t i v e s u r v e y o f r e s e a r c h on E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s y i e l d s i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e MLA ANNUAL BIBLIOGRAPHY t h e number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s on t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y has d o u b l e d s i n c e 1964. Items c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i s p e r i o d h a v e no l o n g e r b e e n l i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y s i n c e 1972. b u t t h e y a r e q u i t e c o n s p i c u o u s anyway (See T a b l e ) .
I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e o v e r a l l number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s on t h i n g s m e d i e v a l has n o t grown a t t h e same r a t e as w o r k s on t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y . T h i s means t h a t t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y - a p e r i o d u n d e r v a l u e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e s - has now become a f o c a l p o i n t o f E n g l i s h m e d i e v a l s t u d i e s . D e r e k S. B r e w e r
( C a m b r i d g e ) i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e t o p i c a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y i s due t o a k i n d o f " e l e c t i v e a f f i n i t y " . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n l i e s i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e p o c h and i t s a p p e a l t o t h e modern m i n d . D u r i n g t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y r e a l i t y becomes a p r o b l e m f o r t h e p o e t s ; f a n c y and i m a g i n a t i o n g a i n more p r o m i n e n c e . The h o r o o l o g i c - m i m e t i c t h e o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e i s s u p e r s e d e d by a c o m p l e x p e r c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y .
The s h e e r b u l k o f w o r k s on a l l k i n d s o f 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a t u r e p r e c l u d e s an a d e q u a t e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t . In p r e p a r i n g t h i s s u r v e y , I h a v e c o l l e c t e d and c l a s s i f i e d 1430 i n d i v i d u a l t i t l e s - b u t o f c o u r s e I have not r e a d them a l l . In o r d e r t o a v o i d t o o much s u b j e c t i v i t y . I have made e x t e n s i v e u s e o f r e v i e w s , d r a w i n g u p o n some f i f t e e n b e t t e r known s c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n s among them SPECULUM, MODERN PHILOLOGY, MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES. PUBLICATIONS OF THE MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. MODERN LANGUAGE REVIEW. ARCHIV FÜR DAS STUDIUM DER NEUEREN SPRACHEN UND LITERATUREN. And y e t t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e w h i c h e m e r g e s , i f a t a l l , w i l l be h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e i n t h e end, due t o b o t h t h e c r i t e r i a o f s e l e c t i o n , and t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e r e v i e w s c o n s u l t e d .
BIBLIOGRAPHIES, CONCORDANCES
New and i m p o r t a n t w o r k s h a v e a p p e a r e d on n e a r l y a l l f i e l d s o f m e d i e v a l r e s e a r c h , and t h r o u g h them o l d e r s t a n d a r d w o r k s h a v e become o u t d a t e d . T h i s i s t r u e o f t h e NEW CAMBRIDGE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, and o f c o u r s e , o f t h e MANUAL OF THE WRITINGS IN MIDDLE ENGLISH. The l a t t e r now i n c l u d e s a v o l u m i n o u s s e c t i o n on t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y . The l a s t v o l u m e t o a p p e a r was t h e one on b a l l a d s , c a r o l s and p o e t r y o f J o h n L y d g a t e .
G e o r g e W a t s o n , e d . , THE NEW CAMBRIDGE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 7 2 - 7 4 ) . 4 v o l s ;
J . B u r k e S e v e r s , A MANUAL OF THE WRITINGS IN MIDDLE ENGLISH. 1050-1500 (New Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t . 1967- 8 0 ) . 6 v o l s .
A new p u b l i c a t i o n w i t h t h e t i t l e MEDIEVAL STUDIES p r e s e n t s a g e n e r a l a n n o t a t e d r e f e r e n c e b i b l i o g r a p h y t o t h e m a j o r c o l l e c t i o n s and s o u r c e s , as w e l l as t o t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e . The work i s o r d e r e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y and w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r s t u d e n t s i n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y
p r o g r a m s .
E v e r e t t V. C r o s b y , C. J u l i a n B i s h k o anä R o b e r t L.
K e l l o g g , e d s . . MEDIEVAL STUDIES: A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL GUIDE (New Y o r k , 1983)
I t has b e e n d o u b t e d w h e t h e r t h e e x t e n s i o n o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r and m i n o r byways i s r e a l l y a b e n e f i t f o r t h e s c h o l a r . In r e s p e c t t o t h e MANUAL t h e r e i s a g o o d d e a l o f c r i t i c i s m on t h e p r a c t i c e o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . D e r e k P e a r s a l l
(MEDIUM AEVUM. 43 [ 1 9 7 4 ] , 88) s a y s o f V o l . I l l , C h a p t e r V I I
" D i a l o g u e s , D e b a t e s and C a t e c h i s m s " by F r a n c i s L e e U t l e y : U t l e y , i n a d d i t i o n t o i n c l u d i n g t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y m a t e r i a l , z e a l o u s l y e x p a n d s t h e r a n g e o f h i s g i v e n g e n r e , o f f e r i n g 76 h e a d i n g s and 183 d i s t i n c t p i e c e s , where W e l l s had 16 and 34 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
In g e n e r a l P e a r s a l l c r i t i c i s e s t h e h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d and t h e r e f o r e u s e l e s s and a t t i m e s e v e n a b s u r d s u b d i v i s i o n s . O t h e r s h a v e c o m p l a i n e d o f t h e l a c k o f c o m p l e t e n e s s i n r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p , as f o r i n s t a n c e Anne H u d s o n ( R e v i e w o f V o l . I I i n MEDIUM AEVUM, 43 [ 1 9 7 4 ] , 2 0 0 ) .
The new W e l l s i s a p r i m e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f t h e m e d i e v a l i s t . The i n d i v i d u a l s p h e r e s o f r e s e a r c h h a v e become so d i v e r s i f i e d and h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d t h a t e v e n t h e s p e c i a l i s t has d i f f i c u l t y i n s u b d i v i d i n g , s y s t e m a t i z i n g and o r d e r i n g h i s m a t e r i a l s . He t h u s p r e s e n t s t h e r e a d e r w i t h o v e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d s y s t e m s and s u b d i v i s i o n s w h i c h b a r e a s y s u r v e y . And n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e o b j e c t i v e c r i t i c must a d m i t t h a t t h e new W e l l s i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n s t r u m e n t f o r E n g l i s h s t u d e n t s w o r k i n g on m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e . I t makes a l l f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h i e s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e . T h e r e f o r e t h e y do n o t need s p e c i a l m e n t i o n h e r e . The o n l y e x c e p t i o n I w o u l d make i s N e i l K e r • s s e r i e s MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPTS IN B R I T I S H LIBRARIES, a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n and i n v e n t o r y o f i l l - c a t a l o g u e d m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t s i n B r i t i s h l i b r a r i e s . K e r d i e d i n A u g u s t 1982, a f t e r h a v i n g f i n i s h e d t h e t h i r d v o l u m e , b e g i n n i n g w i t h L a m p e t e r and e n d i n g w i t h O x f o r d . A. G. W a t s o n p r o m i s e s i n
t h e P r e f a c e t o t h i s v o l u m e t h a t t h e s e r i e s w i l l be c o m p l e t e d as i n t e n d e d and o r g a n i z e d by Ker h i m s e l f . I t w o u l d be s a d i n d e e d i f t h i s a d m i r a b l e monument o f
s c h o l a r s h i p were t o r e m a i n i n c o m p l e t e .
S e v e r a l c o n c o r d a n c e s h a v e a p p e a r e d , among them M i c h a e l J . P r e s t o n ' s CONCORDANCE TO THE MIDDLE ENGLISH SHORTER POEMS ( 1 9 7 5 ) . The t e x t u a l b a s i s c o n s i s t s o f t e n r e c o g n i s e d a n t h o l o g i e s , s u c h as t h o s e o f C a r l e t o n Brown. R o s s e l l Hope R o b b i n s , R. L. G r e e n e and G. L. B r o o k . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e t e x t s i s more t h a n d e p l o r a b l e . D o u g l a s G r a y p o i n t s o u t t h a t many r e l i g i o u s l y r i c s p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l i e r v o l u m e s o f t h e E a r l y E n g l i s h T e x t S o c i e t y c a n n o t be f o u n d i n t h e a n t h o l o g i e s , and, what i s w o r s e , t h e s c h o l a r must t u r n e l s e w h e r e f o r t h e l y r i c s o f L y d g a t e , H e n r y s o n , D u n b a r and K e n n e d y ( R e v i e w i n MEDIUM AEVUM. 48 [ 1 9 7 9 ] , 3 0 7 ) . M o r e o v e r t h e r e i s n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g , w h i c h makes t h e work a l l b u t u s e l e s s f o r t h e o r d i n a r y s t u d e n t . P r e s t o n has a l s o p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l o t h e r c o n c o r d a n c e s t o m e d i e v a l w o r k s s u c h as p a g e a n t s , c y c l e s and m o r a l i t y p l a y s :
A COMPLETE CONCORDANCE TO THE WAKEFIELD PAGEANTS IN THE TOWNLEY CYCLE. (Ann A r b o r , 1 9 7 7 ) ;
A CONCORDANCE TO FOUR 'MORAL' PLAYS: 'THE C A S T L E OF PERSEVERANCE'. 'WISDOM'. 'MANKIND', AND 'EVERYMAN' (Ann A r b o r . 1 9 7 5 ) ;
A CONCORDANCE TO THE ' DIGBY PLAYS' ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; w i t h J e a n D.
P f l e i d e r e r ;
A KWIC CONCORDANCE TO THE PLAYS OF THE WAKEFIELD MASTER (New Y o r k . 1 9 8 2 ) .
T h e r e a r e a l s o s e v e r a l t i t l e s on p a l e o g r a p h y and t h e e d i t i n g o f M i d d l e E n g l i s h m a n u s c r i p t s . C h a r l e s Moorman has w r i t t e n s u c h a book f o r b e g i n n e r s : C h a r l e s Moorman. E D I T I N G THE MIDDLE ENGLISH MANUSCRIPT ( J a c k s o n . M i s s i s s i p p i , 1 9 7 5 ) . But G e r r i t s e n , E . T. D o n a l d s o n and P a m e l a G r a d o n h a v e s e r i o u s d o u b t s a s t o t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f s u c h a w o r k .1 The v o l u m e e d i t e d by A. G. R i g g , E D I T I N G MEDIEVAL T E X T S . ENGLISH. FRENCH. AND L A T I N WRITTEN IN ENGLAND ( T o r o n t o .
1 9 7 7 ) . was b e t t e r r e c e i v e d . I t i s a g r e a t h e l p f o r t h o s e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e f i n e p o i n t s o f e d i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s .
OVERVIEWS OF THE PERIOD
P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l and i m p o r t a n t f o r r e s e a r c h e r s and s t u d e n t s a r e . o f c o u r s e . t h e o v e r v i e w s o f t h e p e r i o d . S e v e r a l w e l l - k n o w n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i e s h a v e a p p e a r e d i n r e v i s e d f o r m , and w i t h an e n l a r g e d c h a p t e r on t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y . T h i s i s t r u e o f W. F. S c h i r m e r ' s HISTORY OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE ( T ü b i n g e n , 1983) and o f E U R O P Ä I S C H E S S P Ä T M I T T E L A L T E R , ed. W i l l i E r z g r ä b e r
( W i e s b a d e n . 1 9 7 8 ) , V o l . 8 o f t h e NEUES HANDBUCH DER LITERATURWISSENSCHAFT, ed. K l a u s v o n See. D e r e k P e a r s a l l has p r e s e n t e d us w i t h a m a s t e r l y h i s t o r y o f OLD ENGLISH AND MIDDLE ENGLISH POETRY ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 7 ) . The c h a p t e r on t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y b e l o n g s t o t h e most i n s t r u c t i v e and most o r i g i n a l s e c t i o n s o f t h e b o o k . M o r e o v e r i t i s e m i n e n t l y r e a d a b l e . F r e d C. R o b i n s o n p r a i s e s P e a r s a l l ' s s t y l e , w h i c h a c h i e v e s " a t t i m e s an a l m o s t e p i g r a m m a t i c t r e n c h a n c y "
(MODERN LANGUAGE REVIEW, 76 [ 1 9 8 1 ) . 6 5 4 ] .
A t l e a s t as r e a d a b l e as P e a r s a l l ' s h i s t o r y i s D e r e k S.
B r e w e r ' s ENGLISH GOTHIC LITERATURE ( L o n d o n . 1 9 8 3 ) . B r e w e r ' s book d i f f e r s f r o m o t h e r h i s t o r i e s o f t h e p e r i o d i n s o f a r as i t demands no s p e c i a l i s t k n o w l e d g e . I t d e s c r i b e s o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e s o f t e x t s . t r a n s m i t t i n g t o t h e r e a d e r a d i r e c t f e e l i n g o f a c t u a l m e d i e v a l l i t e r a r y w o r k s .
S i m i l a r i n a p p r o a c h and t e n d e n c y , but on a l o w e r l e v e l o f s c h o l a r s h i p and s t y l e , a r e d o z e n s of i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e and o v e r v i e w s o f t h e p e r i o d . A g r e a t many o f them a i m a t p o p u l a r i s i n g t h i s s u b j e c t a t t h e c o s t o f s o u n d s c h o l a r s h i p and r e l i a b i l i t y . The same i s t r u e o f t e x t e d i t i o n s d i r e c t e d a t "an i n t e l l i g e n t b u t u n i f o r m e d r e a d e r s h i p . " T h i s i s how J o h n B u r r o w d e s c r i b e s t h e t a r g e t a u d i e n c e o f h i s a n t h o l o g y ENGLISH VERSE 1300-1500 ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 7 ) .
P u r e l y l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s o f l a t e m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e seem t o be i n c r e a s i n g l y s u p e r s e d e d o r e v e n r e p l a c e d by i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y t r e a t m e n t s . T h i s i s a t e n d e n c y w h i c h c a n be s e e n i n a l l c e n t e r s o f m e d i e v a l s t u d i e s . In most c a s e s t h i s c a n o n l y be a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o o p e r a t i o n , w h i c h means t h a t a s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m i s a p p r o a c h e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s and, o f c o u r s e , by s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s . T h i s i s t r u e o f S t e p h e n M e d c a l f ' s c o l l e c t i o n , THE CONTEXT OF ENGLISH LITERATURE:
THE LATER MIDDLE AGES ( L o n d o n . 1 9 8 1 ) . I t a p p l i e s a l s o t o C.
T. A l l m a n d . e d . . WAR. LITERATURE AND P O L I T I C S IN THE LATE MIDDLE AGES ( L i v e r p o o l , 1976) and t o J e n n i f e r Brown, e d . S C O T T I S H S O C I E T Y IN THE F I F T E E N T H CENTURY (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 7 ) . The l a t t e r v o l u m e c o n t a i n s an i n t e r e s t i n g p a p e r on S c o t t i s h l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e p e r i o d .
P e r h a p s i t c a n be s a i d t h a t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f an i n t e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h and method i s g e n e r a l l y f e l t and v o i c e d , b u t t h a t f o r o b v i o u s r e a s o n s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r i t y has e i t h e r b e e n teamwork o r w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g . T h e r e a r e e v i d e n t l y o n l y v e r y few s c h o l a r s w i t h a f i r m f o o t i n g i n two o r more d i s c i p l i n e s . The i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y l o n e w o l f i s t h u s i n d a n g e r o f f a i l i n g t o r e a c h t h e s t a n d a r d o f b o t h d i s c i p l i n e s , i f t h e r e a r e two. and e v e n w o r s e , o f e r r i n g u n d u l y i f t h e r e a r e t h r e e o r more. T h u s A.S.G. E d w a r d s ( i n SPECULUM. 49 [ 1 9 7 4 ] , 373) s a y s on S e a t t e r g o o d ' s P O L I T I C S AND POETRY IN THE F I F T E E N T H CENTURY (New Y o r k . 1972) t h a t "...
i t f a l l s s a d l y b e t w e e n two s t o o l s : i t has l i t t l e t o s a y t h a t has n o t a l r e a d y b e e n made known t o t h e s t u d e n t o f h i s t o r y and i t d o e s n o t h i n g t o a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . " The t h e o r y o f i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r i t y has y e t t o be w r i t t e n .
R e l a t i v e l y many p u b l i c a t i o n s do n o t c l a i m t o be i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y , b u t a n a l y z e t h e i r s u b j e c t a g a i n s t t h e f o i l o f i t s s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d . In s u c h c a s e s , h i s t o r y i s o n l y an a n c i l l a r y s u b j e c t w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s u s e f u l k n o w l e d g e on t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r e m i s e s and
c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f t h e l i t e r a r y work. T h u s , J o h n B u r r o w has s u b m i t t e d a v o l u m e on MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE AND ITS BACKGROUND, 1100-1500: MEDIEVAL WRITERS AND THEIR WORK
( O x f o r d , 1982) and a n o t h e r v o l u m e c a l l e d ESSAYS ON MEDIEVAL L I T E R A T U R E ( O x f o r d . 1 9 8 4 ) . B u r r o w s t r e s s e s t h e " o t h e r n e s s "
o f m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e . p a r t i c u l a r y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n o t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e , t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r w h i c h i t was p r o d u c e d and t h e s p e c i f i c m e a n i n g s t o be f o u n d i n i t .
M o r e l i m i t e d i n s c o p e b u t v e r y r e w a r d i n g and u s e f u l i s A.C. S p e a r i n g ' s book on MEDIEVAL DREAM POETRY ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 7 6 ) . In s p i t e o f i t s v a g u e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k c o m b i n i n g F r e u d . J u n g and M a c r o b i u s , t h e book w i l l be r e g a r d e d as a s t a n d a r d work on a v e r y i m p o r t a n t t y p e o f m e d i e v a l E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e . The same i s t r u e o f T.
T u r v i l l e - P e t r e ' s book on THE A L L I T E R A T I V E REVIVAL ( 1 9 7 7 ) w h i c h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t f o r r e s e a r c h on t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y . T u r v i l l e - P e t r e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e i m p e t u s o f a l l i t e r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e waned i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y , b u t t h a t t h e S c o t s t o o k i t up a f t e r 1450 and t h a t t h e y p r o d u c e d i n t e r e s t i n g a l l i t e r a t i v e w o r k s w i t h a d i s t i n c t i v e l y S c o t t i s h f l a v o u r . M e n t i o n s h o u l d a l s o be made o f two r e c e n t v o l u m e s o f e s s a y s e d i t e d by P a u l S z a r m a c h and D a v i d A. L a w t o n w i t h a s i m i l a r e m p h a s i s : B e r n a r d S. L e v y and P a u l B. S z a r m a c h , THE A L L I T E R A T I V E TRADITION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY ( K e n t . O h i o . 1 9 8 1 ) . and D a v i d L a w t o n . e d . . MIDDLE ENGLISH A L L I T E R A T I V E POETRY AND ITS LITERARY BACKGROUND ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 8 2 ) .
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l o t h e r a c c o u n t s o f " t h e g r e a t age o f S c o t t i s h p o e t r y , " some r e s t r i c t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r s , o t h e r s t o s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s s u c h as p o l i t i c s and p o e t r y , s t y l e and r h e t o r i c and S c o t t i s h a t t i t u d e s t o p o e t r y , most n o t a b l y R. J . L y a l l , " P o l i t i c s and P o e t r y i n 1 5 t h - a n d 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y S c o t l a n d , " SCOTTISH LITERARY JOURNAL, 3/4 ( 1 9 7 6 / 7 7 ) , 5-29; I a n J a r a i e s o n . "Some A t t i t u d e s t o P o e t r y i n L a t e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y S c o t l a n d . " STUDIES IN SCOTTISH LITERATURE.
15 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 28-42; A.M. K i n g h o r n . " D e a t h and t h e ' M a k a r s ' : 'Timor M o r t i s ' i n S c o t t i s h P o e t r y t o 1600." ENGLISH STUDIES, 60 ( 1 9 7 9 ) . 2-13; Adam J . A i t k i n , M a t t h e w P. M c D i a r m i d and D e r i c k S. Thomson. e d s . . BARDS AND 'MAKARS': S C O T T I S H LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ( G l a s g o w . 1 9 7 7 ) . The s t r o n g m o r a l i s i n g c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s k i n d o f p o e t r y i s g e n e r a l l y s t r e s s e d .
MEDIEVAL DRAMA
No o t h e r g e n r e h a s marked t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y t o t h e same d e g r e e as drama: m y s t e r y p l a y s , m o r a l i t i e s and i n t e r l u d e s . T h i s f a c t i s c l e a r l y m i r r o r e d i n t h e w e a l t h o f s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e . The s t a t e o f r e s e a r c h i s n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e t o s u m m a r i z e . O n l y a few e x e m p l a r y t e n d e n c i e s c a n be s k e t c h e d h e r e .
F i r s t o f a l l m e n t i o n must be made o f G l y n n Wickham. who has p u b l i s h e d a number o f s m a l l e r a r t i c l e s i n d i v e r s e p e r i o d i c a l s , b u t whose l o n g e r w o r k s a r e most w o r t h y o f n o t e : THE MEDIEVAL THEATRE ( 1 9 7 4 ) . EARLY ENGLISH STAGES 1300-1660: PLAYS AND THEIR MAKERS TO 1576 3 v o l s . ( 1 9 5 9 - 8 1 ) . a s w e l l a s h i s e d i t i o n o f ENGLISH MORAL INTERLUDES ( 1 9 7 6 ) . C r i t i c i s m o f t h e s e t h r e e w o r k s h a s b e e n r a t h e r a m b i v a l e n t . EARLY ENGLISH STAGES has g e n e r a l l y b e e n r e g a r d e d as a p i o n e e r i n g work w h i c h b r e a k s new g r o u n d . THE MEDIEVAL THEATRE has b e e n s u s p e c t e d o f " p o t b o i l e r i s m " ( S e e
r e v i e w by A l a n H. N e l s o n i n MEDIUM AEVUM, 45 [ 1 9 7 6 ] . 2 2 3 - 2 6 ) . ENGLISH MORAL INTERLUDES. f i n a l l y . i s a v e r y h e l p f u l e d i t i o n f o r t h e s t u d e n t a u d i e n c e , f o r w h i c h i t i s o b v i o u s l y d e s i g n e d . Wickham i s , h o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o a l l s t a n d a r d s , one o f t h e l e a d i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o l a r s i n t h e f i e l d o f m e d i e v a l drama and t h e a t r e .
E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , and i n c e r t a i n c h a p t e r s e v e n more u s e f u l . i s S t a n l e y K a h r l ' s book on TRADITIONS OF MEDIEVAL ENGLISH DRAMA ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 4 ) . K a h r l i s c l e a r l y a b r e a s t o f modern s c h o l a r s h i p a n d h a s a l s o a c e r t a i n i n t u i t i o n o r
f e e l i n g f o r m e d i e v a l p l a y s a s t h e a t r e . I h a v e recommended t h i s b o o k t o my s t u d e n t s a s t h e most r e l i a b l e work on m e d i e v a l drama.
On t h e n a r r o w e r f i e l d o f m o r a l i t i e s R o b e r t P o t t e r must be r e g a r d e d a s a n a u t h o r i t y . P o t t e r i s h i m s e l f a s k i l l e d p l a y w r i g h t . w h i c h e x p l a i n s h i s t e n d e n c y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e p r i n t e d t e x t o n l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h i t s f u n c t i o n a s t h e a t r e and t h u s w i t h a v i e w t o a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e s and t h e i r c o n d i t i o n i n g i n f l u e n c e s ( S e e P o t t e r , THE E N G L I S H MORALITY PLAY: ORIGINS. HISTORY AND INFLUENCE OF A DRAMATIC TRADITION [ L o n d o n . 1 9 7 5 ] ) .
The t e n d e n c y t o t a k e f u n c t i o n a l a s p e c t s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s a l s o r e c o g n i s a b l e i n W i l l i a m Tydeman's THE THEATRE IN THE MIDDLE AGES: WESTERN EUROPEAN STAGE CONDITIONS. c . 800-1576 ( 1 9 7 8 ) . H i s a c c o u n t o f t h e a t r e r e s o u r c e s i s p e r h a p s a b i t t o o s e l f - c o n t a i n e d and n o t c l o s e l y e n o u g h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t e x t and f u n c t i o n ( c f . t h e r e v i e w by D. M i l l s i n REVIEW OF ENGLISH S T U D I E S . 31 [ 1 9 8 0 ] . 3 2 8 - 3 0 ) . And y e t t h i s book i s a r e a d a b l e i n t r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e " n o n - s p e c i a l i s t r e a d e r . "
One weak p o i n t o f w o r k s s u c h as t h i s i s t h a t t h e y do n o t c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y - l e v e l m a t e r i a l d e s i g n e d f o r n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l s , and t h o s e h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d p r o b l e m s o f r e s e a r c h w h i c h a r e o n l y m e a n i n g f u l f o r e x p e r t s i n t h e f i e l d . T h u s J o h n G a r d n e r ' s work, THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WAKEFIELD CYCLE ( C a r b o n d a l e . 1974) i s e x p l i c i t l y d e s i g n e d f o r t h e " g e n e r a l i s t . p e o p l e whose c h i e f c o n c e r n i s a e s t h e t i c . " and y e t he p a i n s t a k i n g l y a n a l y s e s r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e W a k e f i e l d c a n o n . I n t r o d u c t o r y and r e v i s i o n i s t t e n d e n c i e s s t a n d s i d e by s i d e and i n e a c h o t h e r ' s way ( S e e t h e r e v i e w by D.P. P o t e e t , I I , i n JOURNAL OF E N G L I S H AND GERMANIC PHILOLOGY, 74 [ 1 9 7 5 ] , 5 7 2 - 7 4 ) .
M o r e c l e a r l y f o c u s e d u p o n a e s t h e t i c p r o b l e m s i s R i c h a r d J . C o l l i e r ' s POETRY AND DRAMA IN THE YORK CORPUS CHRISTI PLAY (Hamden, 1 9 7 8 ) . C o l l i e r e s t a b l i s h e s p o e t r y a s t h e most c r u c i a l e l e m e n t o f t h e drama's e f f e c t i v e n e s s ( S e e t h e
r e v i e w by D a v i d S t a i n e s i n SPECULUM, 54 [ 1 9 7 9 ] , 7 8 9 - 9 0 ) . A l a n H. N e l s o n i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n f a c t u a l and h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f m e d i e v a l p e r f o r m a n c e s . In h i s work THE MEDIEVAL ENGLISH STAGE: CORPUS CHRISTI PAGEANTS AND PLAYS ( C h i c a g o , 1 9 7 4 ) , he b a f f l e s h i s r e a d e r w i t h t h e t r u l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e s i s t h a t t h e Y o r k C y c l e was p l a y e d a t o n l y one s i t e , and was n o t mounted on p a g e a n t wagons. A t r u e p r o c e s s i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n w i t h f r e e a d v a n c e s was n o t p o s s i b l e a t Y o r k w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f a d a y , s o he m a i n t a i n s ( c f . t h e r e v i e w by G. C. B r i t t o n i n NOTES AND QUERIES, 22 [ 1 9 7 5 ] , 4 1 6 - 1 8 ) . The r e v i e w s h a v e w a v e r e d b e t w e e n r e s e r v a t i o n and r e j e c t i o n . " I t ( t h i s book) w i l l s u r e l y e n g e n d e r l o n g and s e r i o u s d e b a t e . " s a y s R i c h a r d B e a d l e i n MEDIUM AEVUM, 45 ( 1 9 7 6 ) . 350. M i c h a e l R. K e l l e y t a k e s t h e r e c e p t i o n t h e o r y a s h i s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e . H i s book FLAMBOYANT DRAMA: A STUDY OF 'THE C A S T L E OF PERSEVERANCE'. 'MANKIND'. AND
•WISDOM' ( 1 9 7 9 ) t r i e s t o d e m o n s t r a t e a p r e m e d i t a t e d d e s i g n i n t h e t h r e e p l a y s u n d e r s c r u t i n y . B u t i t h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r t h i s d e s i g n i s r e a l l y as e l a b o r a t e as K e l l y has a r g u e d ( F o r e x a m p l e , by D.C. B a k e r i n E N G L I S H LANGUAGE NOTES. 17 [ 1 9 8 0 ] . 2 0 8 - 0 9 ) .
The I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s on M e d i e v a l S t u d i e s ( K a l a m a z o o ) and t h e M e d i e v a l I n s t i t u t e a t W e s t e r n M i c h i g a n U n i v e r s i t y ( K a l a m a z o o ) h a v e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d i m p o r t a n t w o r k s on m e d i e v a l E n g l i s h drama. The p o i n t o f e m p h a s i s was a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a r t h i s t o r y and t h e h i s t o r y o f drama. The f o l l o w i n g t i t l e s s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d :
C l i f f o r d D a v i d s o n . DRAMA AND ART: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF EVIDENCE FROM THE VISUAL ARTS FOR THE STUDY OF EARLY DRAMA ( K a l a m a z o o . 1 9 7 7 ) ;
P a t r i c k J . C o l l i n s . THE N-TOWN PLAYS AND MEDIEVAL PICTURE CYCLES ( K a l a m a z o o . 1 9 7 9 ) ;
S a l l y - B e t h M a c L e a n . CHESTER ART: A SUBJECT L I S T OF EXTANT AND LOST ART, INCLUDING ITEMS RELEVANT TO EARLY DRAMA ( K a l a m a z o o , 1 9 8 2 ) .
ARTHURIAN L I T E R A T U R E AND ROMANCE, INCLUDING MALORY
An a c c o u n t o f r e s e a r c h o n A r t h u r i a n l i t e r a t u r e w o u l d f i l l v o l u m e s . 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h S t u d i e s i n Germany h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s on t h e A r t h u r i a n r o m a n c e s . M o r e a n d more o f them a r e b e i n g p u b l i s h e d i n E n g l i s h , a s f o r i n s t a n c e D i e t e r M e h l ' s book on t h e r o m a n c e s . THE MIDDLE E N G L I S H ROMANCES OF THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES ( L o n d o n . 1 9 6 8 ) .
The f l o o d o f s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e on S i r Thomas M a l o r y has grown q u i t e o v e r w h e l m i n g . T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t M a l o r y ' s work h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d a n d e d i t e d by s c h o l a r s f r o m e v e r y c o u n t r y i m a g i n a b l e f r o m H u n g a r y t o J a p a n . I t h a s b e e n p a r a p h r a s e d , c o n d e n s e d , r e t o l d a n d made i n t o c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s , a s w e l l a s f o r m i n g t h e b a s i s f o r s e v e r a l f i l m s . D e r e k B r e w e r comments:
The r e a s o n f o r t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w o r l d ' s c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t i n A r t h u r i a n r o m a n c e s i s s u r e l y due t o M a l o r y , t h e p i v o t , o r b r i d g e . i n t h i s r e s p e c t , b e t w e e n t h e o l d and n e w .2
The number o f m o n o g r a p h s o n t h e s u b j e c t i s i m p r e s s i v e . N e a r l y e v e r y y e a r o f o u r g i v e n p e r i o d new and v a l u a b l e w o r k s h a v e a p p e a r e d . I c a n o n l y name t h e most i m p o r t a n t o n e s h e r e :
Tomomi K a t o . A CONCORDANCE TO THE WORKS OF SIR THOMAS MALORY ( T o k y o . 1 9 7 4 ) ;
Mark L a m b e r t . MALORY: S T Y L E AND V I S I O N IN 'LE MORTE DARTHUR'. Y a l e S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h 186 (New H a v e n and L o n d o n . 1 9 7 5 ) ;
L a r r y D. B e n s o n . MALORY'S 'MORTE DARTHUR' ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 7 6 ) ;
B e r t D i l l o n . A MALORY HANDBOOK ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8 ) ;
R i c h a r d B a r b e r , e d . , ARTHURIAN LITERATURE. I ( W o o d b r i d g e . 1 9 8 1 ) ;
K u n i o N a k a j i m a . STUDIES IN THE LANGUAGE OF SIR THOMAS MALORY ( T o k y o . 1 9 8 1 ) .
S e v e r a l e d i t i o n s a n d f a c s i m i l e e d i t i o n s h a v e a p p e a r e d :
James W. S p i s a k a n d W i l l i a m M a t t h e w s , e d s . . MALORY:
A NEW EDITION OF •LE MORTE DARTHUR' BASED ON THE PIERPONT MORGAN COPY OF WILLIAM CAXTON'S E D I T I O N OF 1485, 2 v o l s . ( B e r k e l e y . L o s A n g e l e s , 1 9 8 3 ) ;
E u g e n e V i n a v e r , e d . , KING ARTHUR AND HIS KNIGHTS:
S E L E C T E D TALES ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 5 ) ;
P a u l Needham. e d . . ' LE MORTE DARTHUR' PRINTED BY WILLIAM CAXTON. 1485. F a c s i m i l e o f P i e r p o n t M o r g a n L i b r a r y Copy
( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 6 ) ;
N. R. K e r . e d . , THE WINCHESTER MALORY: A F A C S I M I L E . E a r l y E n g l i s h T e x t S o c i e t y , S u p p l e m e n t a r y S e r i e s 4
( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 6 ) ;
P. J . C. F i e l d , e d . . 'LE MORTE D' ARTHUR' : THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH T A L E S ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 8 ) ;
Dan G r i g o r e s c u . e d . . MOARTEA REGELUI ARTHUR. L E MORTE DARTHUR ( B u c h a r e s t , 1 9 7 9 ) . 5 V o l s ;
M i c h a e l S e n i o r , e d . . SIR THOMAS MALORY'S TALES OF KING ARTHUR, a b r i d g e d ( L o n d o n . 1 9 8 0 ) .
A r t i c l e s i n p e r i o d i c a l s . " F e s t s c h r i f t " - a n t h o l o g i e s and d i s s e r t a t i o n s on M a l o r y r a i s e i n s u r m o u n t a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e r e v i e w e r . N e a r l y e v e r y a s p e c t o f M a l o r y ' s a c h i e v e m e n t h a s b e e n d i l i g e n t l y s c r u t i n i z e d : s t y l e and l a n g u a g e , s o u r c e s a n d t h e i r t r e a t m e n t , n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e and method, s e q u e n c e . M a l o r y ' s women, h i s A r t h u r , h i s s y m b o l s , h i s " E n g l i s h n e s s . " h i s c h i v a l r i c e t h o s - a n d l a s t n o t l e a s t , M a l o r y ' s H o l y G r a i l . A c o m p l e t e v i e w o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s d i f f i c u l t , a n e v a l u a t i o n i m p o s s i b l e .
The v e r s e r o m a n c e s o f t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y h a v e r e c e i v e d c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n . S e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e g r e a t a g e o f t h e v e r s e r o m a n c e i s t h e 1 4 t h c e n t u r y . B u t p a r a d o x i c a l a s i t may seem, i t i s t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y w h i c h i s " t h e g r e a t a g e o f 1 4 t h - c e n t u r y romance
. . . W i d e s p r e a d c o p y i n g o f t h e o l d r o m a n c e s c o m b i n e d w i t h p a u c i t y o f new c o m p o s i t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t t h e demand f o r p o p u l a r romance was s t i l l s t r o n g b u t was m o s t l y s a t i s f i e d by v a r i a t i o n s on a f e w f a v o u r i t e m o d e l s " ( t h u s D e r e k P e a r s a l l
i n "The E n g l i s h Romance i n t h e F i f t e e n t h C e n t u r y . " ESSAYS AND STUDIES 29 [ 1 9 7 6 ] , 5 8 - 6 0 ) .
The q u e s t i o n , h o w e v e r , o f a d e f i n i t i o n o f r o m a n c e , i s e v e n t o d a y f a r f r o m c l e a r . R e c e n t a r t i c l e s by s u c h s c h o l a r s as P e a r s a l l , F i s h e r , B r e w e r and F i n l a y s o n h a v e b r o u g h t us a s t e p f u r t h e r i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . B r e w e r l i s t s a number o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e d i e v a l romance a s o p p o s e d t o t h e modern n o v e l ( D e r e k B r e w e r , "The N a t u r e o f Romance," POETICA
[TOKYO], 9 [ 1 9 7 8 ] , 9 - 4 8 ) . F i n l a y s o n d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e r o m a n c e a n d m e d i e v a l h e r o i c p o e t r y by e s t a b l i s h i n g d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . Romances a r e d i r e c t e d a t a n a u d i e n c e w h i c h i m i t a t e s t h e i r s o c i a l s u p e r i o r s , " b u t . a s w i t h most s o c i a l c l i m b e r s , t h e y m i s t a k e t h e manners o f t h e i r s u p e r i o r s " ( J o h n F i n l a y s o n , " D e f i n i t i o n s o f M i d d l e E n g l i s h Romance," THE CHAUCER REVIEW, 15 [ 1 9 8 0 ] , 1 7 8 ) .
S e v e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s d e a l w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f romance l i t e r a t u r e , a s f o r i n s t a n c e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s ( S u s a n W i t t i g . S T Y L I S T I C AND NARRATIVE STRUCTURES IN THE MIDDLE ENGLISH ROMANCES [ L o n d o n . 1 9 7 8 ] ) . T h e e f f e c t s o f o r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n on t h e romance h a v e b e e n a n a l y z e d s e v e r a l t i m e s . B a l l a d s and c a r o l s h a v e a l s o been s t u d i e d i n t h i s r e g a r d .
D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s on t h e r o m a n c e s m a i n l y f e a t u r e a s p e c t s o f c o n t e n t a n d m o t i f . F o r m u l a i c p h r a s e s h a v e been c o l l e c t e d and l i s t e d , a n d t h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f l i t e r a t u r e on m y t h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . f o l k l o r e . humour.
J u n g i a n a r c h e t y p e s , t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d t h e main c h a r a c t e r s . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e r e a r e e v i d e n t p r e f e r e n c e s f o r c e r t a i n f i g u r e s ; G u i n e v e r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , looms l a r g e i n t h e l i s t s .
CHIVALRY AND WARFARE IN LITERATURE
One m a j o r t e n d e n c y i n m e d i e v a l s t u d i e s h a s b e e n t h e i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t s o f c h a n g i n g p o l i t i c a l and m e n t a l a t t i t u d e s on l i t e r a t u r e . A number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s h a v e f o u n d new n o t e s o f i r o n i c c r i t i c i s m o f a d e c a d e n t and
o u t d a t e d c h i v a l r i c p r a c t i c e . O t h e r s h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e g r o w t h o f a n t i- w a r s e n t i m e n t s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r t h e i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s o f b o t h w a r f a r e and s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n .
L i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s s h o u l d be aware o f t h e p r o g r e s s made by h i s t o r i a n s i n s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d i e s o f k n i g h t h o o d and w a r f a r e . R e c e n t a t t e m p t s t o p r e s e n t a s y n t h e s i s o f t h a t r e s e a r c h h a v e a p p e a r e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t f i v e ' y e a r s - a b o v e a l l . M a u r i c e K e e n , CHIVALRY (New H a v e n . C o n n e c t i c u t . 1 9 8 4 ) .
C o u r t l y l o v e has a l s o become a c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c , t h o u g h t h e n o v e l t y o f t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e e v e r was s o m e t h i n g l i k e c o u r t l y l o v e has g r a d u a l l y g i v e n way t o more s e r i o u s s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t ; s e e J o a n M.
F e r r a n t e . G e o r g e D. Economou e t a l . . e d s . , IN PURSUIT OF PERFECTION: COURTLY LOVE IN MEDIEVAL LITERATURE ( L o n d o n , 1975) .
L Y R I C POETRY
T h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y few p u b l i c a t i o n s on l a t e m e d i e v a l E n g l i s h l y r i c s . Some h i t h e r t o u n p u b l i s h e d poems h a v e b e e n e d i t e d by:
Edward W i l s o n . "Two U n p u b l i s h e d F i f t e e n t h - C e n t u r y Poems f r o m L i n c o l n C o l l e g e . O x f o r d . MS. L a t . 141." NOTES AND QUERIES. 27 ( 1 9 8 0 ) . 20-26;
S i e g f r i e d W e n z e l . " U n r e c o r d e d E n g l i s h V e r s e s . " ANGLIA.
92 ( 1 9 7 4 ) . 55-78.
S e v e r a l a n t h o l o g i e s h a v e a p p e a r e d , most o f them o n l y s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e s t a n d a r d e d i t i o n s . Two o f them d e s e r v e m e n t i o n :
M a x w e l l S. L u r i a and R i c h a r d L. H o f f m a n , e d s . , MIDDLE ENGLISH L Y R I C S : AUTHORITATIVE TEXTS; C R I T I C A L AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS; PERSPECTIVES ON SIX POEMS (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 5 ) ;
D o u g l a s G r a y , A S E L E C T I O N OF RELIGIOUS LYRICS ( O x f o r d , 1975) .
WOMEN'S STUDIES
A p o p u l a r new s u b j e c t i s t h e r o l e o f women i n m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e . One c a n e v e n s a y a f u n d a m e n t a l l y new k i n d o f a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n c r e a t e d w h i c h c a n be c a l l e d Women's S t u d i e s . T h i s f i e l d o f r e s e a r c h i s b a s e d on t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e was g e n e r a l l y w r i t t e n by men a n d f r o m a m a l e p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f women h a s t h u s b e e n d i s t o r t e d o r f a l s i f i e d by m a l e p r e j u d i c e . I n a d d i t i o n r e c e p t i o n , t r a d i t i o n and l i t e r a r y c a n o n s were a l w a y s p a r t o f t h e m a l e p r e r o g a t i v e . T h e r e s u l t i s t h a t l a t e m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e h a s b e e n v i e w e d f r o m a v e r y o n e - s i d e d p e r s p e c t i v e . Women w r i t e r s , s u c h a s C h r i s t i n e o f P i s a , who was w i d e l y r e a d i n E n g l a n d . h a v e b e e n n e g l e c t e d a n d u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . B u t now a s p e c t s o f women's l i f e , m a r r i a g e and m a r r i e d l i f e . t h e e d u c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n a n d t h e e r u d i t i o n o f women h a v e become i m p o r t a n t and p r o m i s i n g o b j e c t s o f r e s e a r c h .
S e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t i s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t h r o u g h e x c e l l e n t b i b l i o g r a p h i e s . T h e b e s t o f them, i n my o p i n i o n , i s L i n d a F r e y , M a r s h a F r e y and J o a n n e S c h n e i d e r , WOMEN IN WESTERN EUROPEAN HISTORY ( B r i g h t o n , 1 9 8 2 ) . T h i s book i s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s u b d i v i d e d , a n d t h u s e a s y t o u s e . A b o u t a h u n d r e d i t e m s on women i n t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y a r e
l i s t e d . A l s o e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l i s t h e " W o r k i n g B i b l i o g r a p h y "
by C a r o l l y E r i c k s o n and K a t h l e e n C a g e y e n t i t l e d "Women i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s , " MEDIEVAL STUDIES. 37 ( 1 9 7 5 ) . 340-59.
F o r my g r a d u a t e s e m i n a r on LOVE, MARRIAGE AND FAMILY IN LATE MEDIEVAL ENGLAND I h a v e c o l l e c t e d a b o u t 50 t i t l e s d e a l i n g w i t h women, t h e i r p r o b l e m s a n d t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e . O f c o u r s e I am a b s o l u t e l y aware o f t h e f a c t t h a t , s i n c e none o f us s h a r e s t h e h e u r i s t i c r e s o u r c e s o f T i r e s i a s o r V i r g i n i a W o o l f ' s O r l a n d o , we c a n o n l y a p p r o a c h t h i s s u b j e c t a s man o r woman. I f I t r y t o e v a l u a t e t h e e v i d e n c e o b j e c t i v e l y I must s a y t h a t w o r k s on t h i s t o p i c w r i t t e n by women a r e v a l u a b l e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e e m o t i o n a l d i s t a n c e and d e t a c h m e n t t h e i r
a u t h o r s c a n m u s t e r . Many f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h e s p r o j e c t 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y p r o b l e m s and p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t o t h e M i d d l e A g e s ; t h e y a r e t h e r e f o r e w o r s e t h a n u s e l e s s , t h e y a r e o u t r i g h t m i s l e a d i n g .
T h e r e a r e e x c e l l e n t s t u d i e s on f e m i n i s t c o n c e r n s i n s c h o l a r l y m a g a z i n e s , s u c h a s t h e JOURNAL OF POPULAR CULTURE. P a r t i c u l a r p r a i s e i s due t o A n g e l a M. L u c a s f o r h e r book, WOMEN IN THE MIDDLE AGES ( B r i g h t o n , 1 9 8 3 ) .
THE INDIVIDUAL AUTHORS
C l e a r l y no c u r s o r y s u r v e y c a n do c o m p l e t e j u s t i c e t o a l l t h e most r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on t h e m a j o r 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y a u t h o r s . In t h e n e x t s e v e r a l p a g e s I c a n o n l y p r o v i d e what I hope w i l l i n g e n e r a l be a d e q u a t e p o i n t s o f d e p a r t u r e .
On R o b e r t H e n r y s o n t h e r e a r e numerous r e c e n t w o r k s . The b e s t c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n o f t h e COMPLETE WORKS a p p e a r e d i n O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , i n 1981 ( D e n t o n F o x , e d . , THE POEMS OF ROBERT HENRYSON), a f t e r s e l e c t i o n s and r e p r i n t s had a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 7 1 . 1 9 7 3 . and 1974; C h a r l e s E l l i o t t , e d . . ROBERT HENRYSON: POEMS. 2nd e d . ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 4 ) ; G.
C h a l m e r . e d . . ' ROBENE AND MAKYNE' AND ' THE TESTAMENT OF CRESSEID' ( E d i n b u r g h . 1824; r p t . New Y o r k . 1 9 7 1 ) ; and D u n c a n S t e w a r t , e d . . MORAL F A B I L I S ( E d i n b u r g h . 1823; r p t . New Y o r k . 1 9 7 3 ) ] . M o n o g r a p h s on H e n r y s o n h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n by M.P. M c D i a r m i d and R o b e r t L . K i n d r i c k ( M c D i a r m i d , ROBERT HENRYSON. S c o t t i s h W r i t e r s S e r i e s [ E d i n b u r g h , 1 9 8 1 ] ; K i n d r i c k . ROBERT HENRYSON. Twayne's E n g l i s h A u t h o r s S e r i e s
[ B o s t o n . 1 9 7 9 ] ) . T h e r e a r e many a r t i c l e s on H e n r y s o n ' s TESTAMENT OF CRESSEID, w h i c h i s d e f i n i t e l y t h e a u t h o r ' s b e s t - k n o w n w o r k . T h a t i t i s , a t t h e same t i m e , h i s b e s t work h a s b e e n d o u b t e d by J.A.W. B e n n e t t , who r a n k s t h e FABLES much h i g h e r ( S e e " H e n r y s o n ' s TESTAMENT: A F l a w e d M a s t e r p i e c e . " SCOTTISH LITERARY JOURNAL. 1/1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] . 5 - 1 6 ) .
The s e c o n d S c o t t i s h C h a u c e r i a n . W i l l i a m D u n b a r , h a s g e n e r a t e d i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t . James K i n s l e y ' s e d i t i o n o f
t h e e n t i r e w o r k s a p p e a r e d i n O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s a s THE POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR ( 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e r e i s a l s o a m o n o g r a p h on t h i s a u t h o r by Edmund R e i s s , WILLIAM DUNBAR ( B o s t o n . 1 9 7 9 ) . S e v e r a l a r t i c l e s d e a l w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e g e n r e o f i n d i v i d u a l poems, s o u r c e s and t h e i r t r e a t m e n t , r h e t o r i c and i m a g e r y .
I n t h e c a s e o f G a v i n D o u g l a s , l e s s has b e e n d o n e . T h e r e i s o n l y one modern m o n o g r a p h y by P r i s c i l l a B a w c u t t , GAVIN DOUGLAS: A C R I T I C A L STUDY ( E d i n b u r g h , 1 9 7 6 ) . But t h e r e a r e q u i t e a few a r t i c l e s i n j o u r n a l s , n e a r l y a l l o f them on D o u g l a s ' s ENEID.
A l s o t h e KINGIS QUAIR by James I has n o t y e t f o u n d t h e c r i t i c a l r e g a r d i t e v i d e n t l y d e s e r v e s . The d e p e n d e n c e u p o n B o e t h i u s and C h a u c e r has o f t e n b e e n n o t e d . b u t t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c method o f James i n r e g a r d t o F o r t u n e and human f a t e a r e s t i l l a w a i t i n g a p p r e c i a t i o n ( W a l t e r S c h o e p s ,
" C h a u c e r i a n S y n t h e s i s : The A r t o f THE KINGIS QUAIR,"
STUDIES IN SCOTTISH LITERATURE. 8 [ 1 9 7 1 ] . 143-65; W i l l i a m Q u i n n . "Memory and t h e M a t r i x o f U n i t y i n THE KINGIS QUAIR."
CHAUCER REVIEW. 15 [ 1 9 8 1 ] . 322-55; V i n c e n t C a r r e t t a . "THE K I N G I S QUAIR and THE CONSOLATION OF PHILOSOPHY." STUDIES IN S C O T T I S H LITERATURE. 16 [ 1 9 8 1 ] . 1 4 - 2 8 ) .
J o h n L y d g a t e . h o w e v e r , has e v i d e n t l y p a s s e d t h e z e n i t h o f h i s s c h o l a r l y a p p e a l . The g r e a t L y d g a t e m o n o g r a p h s o f W a l t e r F. S c h i r m e r , A l a i n R e n o i r , and D e r e k P e a r s a l l h a v e n o t f o u n d a s u c c e s s o r . Some L I V E S h a v e been e d i t e d s e p a r a t e l y ( J . E . v a n d e r W e s t h u i z e n . e d . . THE L I F E OF SAINT ALBAN AND SAINT AMPHIBAL [ L e i d e n . 1 9 7 4 ] ) . A new.
p r o f u s e l y i l l u s t r a t e d m a n u s c r i p t o f THE L I V E S OF STS. EDMUND AND FREMUND has b e e n d i s c o v e r e d and p r i n t e d ( K a t h l e e n L.
S c o t t . " L y d g a t e ' S L I V E S OF SAINTS EDMUND AND FREMUND: A N e w l y - L o c a t e d M a n u s c r i p t i n A r u n d e l C a s t l e , " VIATOR, 13
[ 1 9 8 2 ] . 3 3 5 - 3 6 6 ) . Some w e l l - k n o w n m o t i f s o f L y d g a t e , a s f o r i n s t a n c e h i s G o d d e s s F o r t u n e o r t h e s t e l l i f i c a t i o n o f K i n g A r t h u r , h a v e b e e n r e a s s e s s e d ( R i c h a r d A. Dwyer. " A r t h u r ' s S t e l l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e F A L L OF PRINCES." PHILOLOGICAL
QUARTERLY, 57 [ 1 9 7 8 ] , 155-71; T a m o t s u K u r o s e . GODDESS FORTUNE IN JOHN LYDGATE [ T o k y o . 1 9 8 0 ] ) .
As f o r H o c c l e v e , A u d l e y . C a p g r a v e a n d J o h n M i r k , t h e r e a r e b i o g r a p h i c a l and b a c k g r o u n d s t u d i e s . a s w e l l a s l i n g u i s t i c a n d s t y l i s t i c a p p r o a c h e s .
The u s e o f m a n u s c r i p t s a s a s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e i s a s u b j e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g s c h o l a r l y i n t e r e s t , most o f a l l i f t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e same work ( D e r e k P e a r s a l l , " C h a u c e r and t h e M o d e r n R e a d e r : A Q u e s t i o n o f A p p r o a c h , " DUTCH QUARTERLY REVIEW OF ANGLO-AMERICAN L E T T E R S , 11/4 [ 1 9 8 1 ] , 2 5 8 - 2 6 6 ) .
T h e r e h a s b e e n a k i n d o f r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n W i l l i a m C a x t o n , due t o t h e q u i n c e n t e n a r y o f E n g l i s h p r i n t i n g . Norman F . B l a k e h a s p r o d u c e d t h r e e i m p o r t a n t b o o k s on C a x t o n : CAXTON AND HIS WORLD ( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 9 ) ; N. F . B l a k e , e d . , CAXTON'S OWN PROSE ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 ) ; a n d CAXTON:
ENGLAND'S F I R S T PUBLISHER ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 6 ) , a s w e l l a s a number o f e d i t i o n s a n d s e v e r a l s c h o l a r l y a r t i c l e s .
M a r g e r y Kerape h a s a r o u s e d new i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e s h e was a woman, a n d an i l l i t e r a t e one a t t h a t . C r i t i c s h a v e t r i e d t o f i n d o u t t o what e x t e n t h e r book i s h e r own c o m p o s i t i o n a n d what c r e d i t must be g i v e n h e r a m a n u e n s e s ; s e e A. Goodman.
"The P i e t y o f J o h n Brunham's D a u g h t e r o f L y n n , " i n D e r e k B a k e r . e d . . MEDIEVAL WOMEN ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 8 ) . F o r r a t h e r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s . t h e PASTON LETTERS h a v e g e n e r a t e d new c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t , b o t h i n a n d o u t s i d e women's s t u d i e s . B e n n e t t ' s famous book THE PASTONS AND THEIR ENGLAND
( C a m b r i d g e . 1968) h a s b e e n r e p r i n t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s .
H i s t o r i c a l a n d b a c k g r o u n d s t u d i e s o f t h e b a l l a d s a n d c a r o l s w h i c h may d a t e t o t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y a r e s t i l l i n t h e i r i n f a n c y . In s e v e r a l a n t h o l o g i e s a n d a l s o i n t h e new MANUAL, b a l l a d s a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y o r a r e b e i n g t h e p r i n t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y . The q u e s t i o n o f t h e p o e t i c o r i g i n s o f t h e b a l l a d h a s b e e n s a d l y n e g l e c t e d . T h e r e i s a s good a s n o t h i n g on t h e l a t e m e d i e v a l b a l l a d . L a t e r p o p u l a r b a l l a d s and b r o a d s i d e s h a v e drawn much more
a t t e n t i o n .
L e t roe end ray g r a n d t o u r w i t h a p e r s o n a l s t a t e m e n t . T h e r e a r e many s c h o l a r s i n E n g l i s h s t u d i e s who e n t e r t a i n d o u b t s a s t o t h e u s e f u l n e s s and s e n s e o f h i g h l y c o n d e n s e d summaries o f r e s e a r c h . I f my summary h e l p s e v e n one s c h o l a r a v o i d r e t r a c i n g t h e s t e p s - o r t h e w a n d e r i n g s - o f h i s o r h e r p r e c u r s o r s , t h e n i n my v i e w t h e t r i p h a s b e e n e m i n e n t l y w o r t h m a k i n g . I am f u l l o f r e s p e c t and a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e o r g a n i s e r s and f o r t h e work w h i c h i s done i n K a l a m a z o o , and I t h i n k i t i s m a r v e l l o u s t h a t s o many m e d i e v a l i s t s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d come h e r e t o e x c h a n g e v i e w s on t h e i r common s u b j e c t , w h i c h i s E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e , c i v i l i s a t i o n and l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s a l i n k a c r o s s t h e A t l a n t i c w h i c h c a n make us aware o f o u r common h e r i t a g e , and o u r common r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
NOTES
1S e e r e v i e w s i n E n g l i s h S t u d i e s . 58 ( 1 9 7 7 ) . 449-5;
M o d e r n P h i l o l o g y . 77 ( 1 9 7 9 / 8 0 ) , 84-6; Medium Aevum. 45 ( 1 9 7 6 ) . 372-3.
2T o s h i y u k i T a k a m i y a and D e r e k B r e w e r , e d s . . A s p e c t s o f M a l o r y . A r t h u r i a n S t u d i e s . 1 ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 8 1 ) . p. 1.
TABLE
PUBLICATIONS L I S T E D IN THE MLA ANNUAL BIBLIOGRAPHY BETWEEN 1964 and 1982:
M i d d l e E n g l i s h M i d d l e E n g l i s h Non- 1 5 t h C e n t u r y 1 5 t h C e n t u r y T o t a l
1964 315 60 375
1965 334 54 388
1966 386 69 455
1967 344 68 412
1968 344 80 424
1969 335 74 409
1970 360 74 434
1971 407 97 504
1972 424 125 549
1973* 597
1974 124 593
1975 517
1976 147 575
1977 457
1978 532
1979 114 504
1980 734
1981 136 672
1982
*From 1973 on 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y t i t l e s were no l o n g e r l i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y . The l i s t e d p u b l i c a t i o n r a t e s t h e r e a f t e r a r e b a s e d on e s t i m a t e s .
WORKS C I T E D
A i t k i n , Adam J . , M a t t h e w P. M c D i a r m i d and D e r i c k S. Thomson, e d s . . B a r d s and ' M a k a r s ' : S c o t t i s h L a n g u a g e and L i t e r a t u r e . M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e ( G l a s g o w , 1 9 7 7 ) . A l l m a n d C. T.. e d . . War. L i t e r a t u r e and P o l i t i c s i n t h e L a t e
M i d d l e A g e s ( L i v e r p o o l . 1 9 7 6 ) .
B a r b e r . R i c h a r d , e d . , A r t h u r i a n L i t e r a t u r e , I ( W o o d b r i d g e . 1981) .
B a w c u t . P r i c i l l a , G a v i n D o u g l a s : A C r i t i c a l S t u d y ( E d i n b u r g h . 1 9 7 6 ) .
B e n n e t t , H. S., The P a s t o n s and T h e i r E n g l a n d : S t u d i e s i n an Age o f T r a n s i t i o n , 3 r d e d . ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 8 ) . B e n n e t t , J . A. W., " H e n r y s o n * s ' T e s t a m e n t ' : A F l a w e d
M a s t e r p i e c e , " S c o t t i s h L i t e r a r y J o u r n a l , 1/1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) . 5-16.
B e n s o n , L a r r y D., M a l o r y ' s 'Morte D a r t h u r ' ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 7 6 ) . B l a k e . Norman F . . C a x t o n and H i s W o r l d ( L o n d o n . 1 9 6 9 ) .
. e d . , C a x t o n ' s Own P r o s e ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 3 ) .
. C a x t o n : E n g l a n d ' s F i r s t P u b l i s h e r ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 6 ) . B r e w e r , D e r e k S., "The N a t u r e o f Romance." P o e t i c a ( T o k y o ) .
9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 9-48.
. E n g l i s h G o t h i c L i t e r a t u r e ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 8 3 ) . Brown. J e n n i f e r , e d . , S c o t t i s h S o c i e t y i n t h e F i f t e e n t h
C e n t u r y (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 7 ) .
B u r r o w , J o h n , e d . . E n g l i s h V e r s e , 1300 - 1500 ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 7 ) . . M e d i e v a l W r i t e r s and T h e i r Work: M i d d l e E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e and I t s B a c k g r o u n d . 1100 - 1500 ( O x f o r d , 1982) .
. E s s a y s on M e d i e v a l L i t e r a t u r e ( O x f o r d , 1 9 8 4 ) .
C a r r e t t a V i n c e n t , "'The K i n g i s Q u a i r ' and 'The C o n s o l a t i o n o f P h i l o s o p h y ' , " S t u d i e s i n S c o t t i s h L i t e r a t u r e , 16 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 14-28.
C h a l m e r , G., e d . , 'Robene and Makyne' and 'The T e s t a m e n t o f C r e s s e i d ' ( E d i n b u r g h , 1824, r p t . New Y o r k , 1 9 7 1 ) .
C o l l i e r , R i c h a r d J . , P o e t r y and Drama i n t h e 'York C o r p u s C h r i s t i P l a y ' (Hamden, 1 9 7 8 ) .
C o l l i n s , P a t r i c k J . , T h e 'N-Town P l a y s ' and M e d i e v a l P i c t u r e C y c l e s ( K a l a m a z o o . 1 9 7 9 ) .
C r o s b y , E v e r e t t V., C. J u l i a n B i s h k o and R o b e r t L. K e l l o g g . e d s . . M e d i e v a l S t u d i e s : A B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l G u i d e (New Y o r k . 1 9 8 3 ) .
D a v i d s o n , C l i f f o r d . Drama and A r t : An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Use o f E v i d e n c e f r o m t h e V i s u a l A r t s f o r t h e S t u d y o f E a r l y Drama ( K a l a m a z o o . 1 9 7 7 ) .
D i l l o n . B e r t . A M a l o r y Handbook ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 8 ) .
Dwyer, R i c h a r d A., " A r t h u r ' s S t e l l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e ' F a l l o f P r i n c e s ' . " P h i l o l o g i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . 57 ( 1 9 7 8 ) . 155-71.
E l l i o t t , C h a r l e s , e d . . R o b e r t H e n r y s o n : Poems, 2nd e d . ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 4 ) .
E r i c k s o n , C a r o l l y a n d K a t h l e e n C a g e y , "Women i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s , " M e d i e v a l S t u d i e s . 37 ( 1 9 7 5 ) . 340-59.
E r z g r ä b e r , W i l l i , e d . . E u r o p ä i s c h e s Spätraittelalter
( W i e s b a d e n . 1 9 7 8 ) ; V o l . 8 o f Neues Handbuch d e r L i t e r a t u r w i s s e n c h a f t , e d . K l a u s v o n S e e .
F e r r a n t e , J o a n M. , G e o r g e D. Economou e t a l , e d s . . I n P u r s u i t o f P e r f e c t i o n : C o u r t l y L o v e i n M e d i e v a l L i t e r a t u r e
( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 5 ) .
F i e l d , P. J . C., e d . . 'Le M o r t e D a r t h u r ' : T h e S e v e n t h and E i g h t h T a l e s ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8 ) .
F i n l a y s o n . J o h n , D e f i n i t i o n s o f M i d d l e E n g l i s h Romance," The C h a u c e r R e v i e w , 15 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 44-62, 168-181.
F o x , D e n t o n , e d . . T h e Poems o f R o b e r t H e n r y s o n ( O x f o r d , 1981) .
F r e y . L i n d a . M a r s h a F r e y and J o a n n e S c h n e i d e r . Woman i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n H i s t o r y ( B r i g h t o n , 1 9 8 2 ) .
G a r d n e r , J o h n , T h e C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e W a k e f i e l d C y c l e ( C a r b o n d a l e . 1 9 7 4 ) .
Goodman, A.. "The P i e t y o f J o h n Brunhara's D a u g h t e r o f L y n n . "
i n M e d i e v a l Women, e d . D e r e k B a k e r ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 8 ) , pp.
347-358.
G r a y , D o u g l a s , A S e l e c t i o n o f R e l i g i o u s L y r i c s ( O x f o r d . 1 9 7 5 ) .
G r i g o r e s c u . Dan. e d . , M o a r t e a R e g e l u i A r t h u r , ( »Le M o r t e D a r t h u r ' ) ( B u c h a r e s t , 1 9 7 9 ) , 5 v o l s .
J a r o i e s o n , I a n . "Some A t t i t u d e s t o P o e t r y i n L a t e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y S c o t l a n d , " S t u d i e s i n S c o t t i s h L i t e r a t u r e , 15 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 28-42.
K a h r l , S t a n l e y . T r a d i t i o n s o f M e d i e v a l E n g l i s h Drama ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 4 ) .
K a t o , Tomomi, A C o n c o r d a n c e t o t h e Works o f S i r Thoraas M a l o r y ( T o k y o , 1 9 7 4 ) .
K e e n , M a u r i c e , C h i v a l r y (New H a v e n . C o n n e c t i c u t , 1 9 8 4 ) . K e l l e y , M i c h a e l R., F l a m b o y a n t Drama: A S t u d y o f »The
C a s t l e o f P e r s e v e r a n c e ' , 'Mankind', and 'Wisdom"
( C a r b o n d a l e . 1 9 7 9 ) .
K e r , N. R.. e d . . The W i n c h e s t e r M a l o r y : A F a c s i m i l e , E a r l y E n g l i s h T e x t S o c i e t y , S u p p l e m e n t a r y S e r i e s , 4 ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 6 ) .
. M e d i e v a l M a n u s c r i p t s i n B r i t i s h L i b r a r i e s ( O x f o r d ) , 3 v o l s .
K i n d r i c k , R o b e r t L . . R o b e r t H e n r y s o n . Twayne's E n g l i s h A u t h o r s S e r i e s ( B o s t o n . 1 9 7 9 ) .
K i n g h o r n . A. H., " D e a t h and t h e 'Makars': P o e t r y t o 1600"
E n g l i s h
S t u d i e s , 60 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , 2-13.
K i n s l e y , J a m e s . The Poems o f W i l l i a m Dunbar ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) . K u r o s e , T a m o t s u , G o d d e s s F o r t u n e i n J o h n L y d g a t e ( T o k y o ,
1 9 8 0 ) .
L a m b e r t , Mark, M a l o r y : S t y l e and V i s i o n i n •Le M o r t e D a r t h u r ' , Y a l e S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h , 186 ( L o n d o n . 1 9 7 5 ) . L a w t o n , D a v i d , e d . . M i d d l e E n g l i s h A l l i t e r a t i v e P o e t r y and
I t s L i t e r a r y B a c k g r o u n d ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 8 2 ) . L e v y . B e r n a r d S. and P a u l S z a r m a c h . The A l l i t e r a t i v e
T r a d i t i o n i n t h e F o u r t e e n t h C e n t u r y ( K e n t , O h i o . 1 9 8 1 ) . L y a l l . R. J . , " P o l i t i c s and P o e t r y i n 1 5 t h - and 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y
S c o t l a n d , " S c o t t i s h L i t e r a r y J o u r n a l , 3/4 ( 1 9 7 6 / 7 7 ) . 5-29.
L u c a s . A n g e l a M., Women i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s ( B r i g h t o n , 1 9 8 3 ) .
