IIUG dp 87^3
ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS
Does E.S.A. R eally Mean th e En Surrender of th e A rena?
P e te r W athern
ISSN 0175-8918
WISSENSCHAFTSZENTRUM BERLIN FÜR SOZIALFORSCHUNG
Forschungsabteilung
’’Normbildung und Umwelt"
Reichpietschufer 50 D-1000 Berlin (West) 30
Tel.: 25 491-0 IIUG - Potsdam er Str. 58, 1000 Berlin (West) 30, Tel.: (030) 26 10 71
T h is p a p e r c o n t a i n s a re v ie w of th e f o r m u la tio n a n d im p le m e n ta tio n of th e EC E n v ir o n m e n ta lly S e n s itiv e A rea (ESA) P ro g ram m e in th e UK. In m a rk e d c o n t r a s t to p r e v io u s schem es d e s ig n e d to s u p p o r t t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e in o r d e r to a c h ie v e e n v ir o n m e n ta l, p r im a r i l y l a n d s c a p e c o n s e r v a t i o n , o b j e c t i v e s , th e ESA schem e is fu n d e d e x c l u s i v e l y from w ith in th e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c to r . C o n s e q u e n tly , n o n - e n v ir o n m e n ta l is s u e s e x e r te d a n in f lu e n c e on th e f i n a l s e le c tio n of n in e ESAs d u r i n g 1986. In t h i s p a p e r i t is a r g u e d t h a t in a d o p tin g th e p r o c e d u r e s to im p le m e n t t h i s p ro g ram m e th e M in is tr y of A g r ic u ltu r e is s e e k in g to c o n tro l a n i n i t i a t i v e w h ic h is d e s ti n e d to becom e i n c r e a s i n g l y im p o r ta n t a s a g r i c u l t u r a l p o lic y e v o lv e s to acco m m o d ate c o n c e rn s o th e r t h a n e f f i c i e n t food p r o d u c tio n . T h is is a n a r e a w h e re th e UK M in is try p r e v i o u s l y h a s h a d no s p e c i a l com
p e te n c e o r e x p e r ie n c e .
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
G ebiete m it g e fä h r d e te r Umwelt. F ü h rt P o litik im p le m e n ta tio n h ie r w ir k lic h zu r Ö ffnung d er a g r a r p o litis c h e n Arena?
D iese A rb e it g i b t e in e n Ü b e rb lic k ü b e r d ie F o rm u lie ru n g u n d d ie Im p le m e n ta tio n d e s E G -Program m s ü b e r G e b iete m it g e f ä h r d e t e r Um
w e lt ( " E n v ir o n m e n ta lly S e n s itiv e A re a s " - ESAs) in G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n . Im G e g e n s a tz zu f r ü h e r e n P ro g ra m m e n , d ie t r a d i t i o n e l l e Form en d e r L a n d w ir ts c h a f t u n t e r s t ü t z e n s o llte n um d a d u r c h d e n U m w eltsch u tz u n d i n s b e s o n d e r e d e n L a n d s c h a f ts s c h u tz zu v e r b e s s e r n , w ir d d a s E SA -Program m a u s s c h l i e ß l i c h d u r c h d a s A g r a r b u d g e t s e l b s t f i n a n z i e r t . D e m e n ts p re c h e n d s p i e l t e n a n d e r e a l s n u r ö k o lo g is c h e G e s ic h ts p u n k te e in e R olle b ei d e r 1986 g e tro ff e n e n E n d a u s w a h l von 9 E S A -G eb ieten . D as b r i t i s c h e L a n d w ir ts c h a f ts m i n is te r iu m w a r bei d e r F e s tle g u n g d e r V e r f a h r e n s r e g e ln z u r P ro g ra m m im p le m e n ta tio n b e m ü h t, d ie s e u m w e ltb e zo g e n e E G - I n i t i a t i v e u n t e r s e i n e r Ä g id e zu bekom m en; in d ie se m B ereic h h a t t e d a s M in iste riu m b i s h e r w e n ig K om petenz.
1. INTRODUCTION
On 9 F e b r u a r y 1987, th e UK M in is te r o f A g r i c u l t u r e , M ic h a e l J o p lin , a n n o u n c e d th e a l l o c a t i o n o f a f u r t h e r £7 m illio n p e r a n n u m to E n v ir o n m e n ta lly S e n s itiv e A re a s (ESAs) a s o ne com p o n e n t of a p a c k a g e of m e a s u re s d e s ig n e d to p l a c a t e f a r m e r s f a c in g a n u n c e r t a i n f u t u r e . The d e s i g n a t i o n of s p e c i a l a r e a s a s ESAs a r e s e e n a s a n im p o r ta n t m e c h a n ism to h e lp re fo rm a n E u ro p e a n C om m unity (EC) a g r i c u l t u r a l p o lic y u n d e r a t t a c k from a l l q u a r t e r s fo r f o s t e r i n g c o n tin u e d o v e r p r o d u c tio n o f fo o d . W ith in a n ESA, f a r m e r s c a n b e s u b s i d i s e d to c o n tin u e t r a d i t i o n a l ( i n e f f i c i e n t ) a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s in o r d e r to c o n s e rv e th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r o f a n a r e a . M r. J o p l i n 's a n n o u n c e m e n t w a s of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e fo r i t r e p r e s e n t e d a d o u b lin g of th e b u d g e t fo r a sch em e w h ic h , f o r m a ll y , h a d n o t e v e n come in to e x i s t e n c e . The f i r s t p h a s e o f th e ESA p ro g ra m m e cam e in to e ffe c t on 1 M arch 1987.
W hile th e ESA p ro g ra m m e is a l a u d i b l e a tte m p t to r e d r e s s so m ew h at th e b a l a n c e b e tw e e n a g r i c u l t u r e a n d th e e n v iro n m e n t o v e r c e r t a i n s p e c i a l p a r t s of o u r l a n d s c a p e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t e n v i r o n m e n ta l i n t e r e s t s h a v e lo s t a n i m p o r ta n t i n i t i a t i v e o v e r t h i s sch e m e . E n v i r o n m e n ta li s ts s h o u ld be c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e p r o c e d u r e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n a d o p te d to a d m in is te r th e sch em e.
In t h i s p a p e r , i t i s a r g u e d t h a t w ith in ESAs a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s h a v e w r e s te d c o n tr o l of e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n c e rn s from th e s t a t u t o r y b o d ie s w h ic h t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a v e a d m in is te r e d t h i s p o lic y a r e n a , w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t th e ESA p ro g ra m m e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y n o n - e n v ir o n m e n ta l i s s u e s . S e v e re f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s on th e ESA p ro g ra m m e a t p r e s e n t m ean t h a t th e schem e c a n h a v e o n ly lim it e d im p a c t i n p ro m o tin g e n v ir o n m e n ta l p r o te c tio n c o n c e rn s in th e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s c a p e . I t m ay b e a r g u e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e l o s t i n i t i a t i v e i s of o n ly m in o r im p o r ta n c e . T h is v ie w p o in t f a i l s to ta k e a c c o u n t of th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c h a n g e s l i k e l y to come a b o u t in a g r i c u l t u r a l p o lic y w ith in th e E u ro p e a n C om m unity (EC) in th e f u t u r e . I t a p p e a r s t h a t th e ESA p ro g ra m m e c a n o n ly e x p a n d , b e c a u s e some form o f t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e , s u b s i d i s e d
in o r d e r to a c h ie v e e n v ir o n m e n ta l o b j e c t i v e s , seem s l i k e l y o v e r a m uch l a r g e r p a r t of th e UK. I f The m i n i s t e r 's s ta te m e n t r e p r e s e n ts th e f i r s t s ta g e in t h i s e x p a n s io n , th e l o s t i n i t i a t i v e c o u ld y e t p ro v e to be of g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e .
2 . ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS
I t w o u ld b e a m is ta k e to v ie w EC a g r i c u l t u r a l p o lic y — com m only r e f e r r e d to a s th e Common A g r i c u l t u r a l P o lic y (CAP)— a s b e in g c o n c e r n e d s o le ly w ith th e p ro d u c tio n of fo o d . W idely r e g a r d e d a s th e p r i c e n e c e s s a r y to s e c u re F r e n c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e EC, th e CAP h a s im p o r ta n t s o c ia l co m p o n en ts m a s c a r a d i n g a s a g r i c u l t u r a l p o lic y .
An i m p o r ta n t e le m e n t c o n ta i n e d w ith in th e G u id a n c e S e c tio n of th e CAP a d d r e s s e s th e n e e d to i n t e n s i f y a n d r a t i o n a l i s e l a n d h o l d i n g s . O v er m uch of th e s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d p a r t s o f th e C o m m unity, f a r m e r s h a v e b e e n a b le to do no m ore t h a n s c r a t c h th e b a r e s t l i v i n g from s m a ll i n e f f i c i e n t l a n d h o l d i n g s . T h ro u g h th e CAP, i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n h a v e b e e n a c h ie v e d in th e fa c e of a m a jo r w o rld a g r i c u l t u r a l r e c e s s i o n , b u t o n ly th r o u g h th e p r o v is io n of g u a r a n t e e d p r i c e s , p r o te c te d m a r k e ts a n d a i d to c u s h io n th e s o c ia l im p a c ts of c h a n g e . The s p e c i a l n e e d s o f th e s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s h a v e b e e n c a t e r e d fo r b y a s u i t e of fo u r d i r e c t i v e s . I n th e c o n te x t of th e UK, th e m ost im p o r ta n t is th e d i r e c t i v e on m o u n ta in a n d h i l l fa r m in g in c e r t a i n le s s f a v o u r e d a r e a s , 1 p o p u l a r l y kn o w n a s th e LFA d i r e c t i v e . T h is d i r e c t i v e p r o v id e s a n n u a l h e a d a g e p a y m e n ts fo r s h e e p a n d s to r e c a t t l e . Im p ro v e m e n ts to i n c r e a s e th e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f fa rm s in th e s e a r e a s w ere o r i g i n a l l y s u b s i d i s e d u n d e r th e te rm s of th e d i r e c t i v e on th e m o d e rn is a tio n of f a r m s . 2 The s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s of c h a n g e a m o n g st a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m u n itie s i n th e EC w e re a d d r e s s e d , to some e x t e n t , b y tw o r e l a t e d d i r e c t i v e s on s t r u c t u r a l im p ro v e m e n ts 3 a n d e d u c a tio n a n d r e t r a i n i n g of f a r m e r s . 2^ O n ly th e LFA a n d fa rm m o d e rn is a tio n d i r e c t i v e s h a v e m uch im p a c t i n th e UK. The th r e e d i r e c t i v e s on m o d e r n is a t io n , s t r u c t u r a l im p ro v e m e n ts a n d r e t r a i n i n g , a d o p te d in 1972, w ere d e s ig n e d to r u n fo r a t e n - y e a r p e r i o d . In f a c t , th e r e p la c e m e n t m e a s u r e s , th e s o - c a l l e d "n ew a g r i c u l t u r a l
s t r u c t u r e s " , w e re n o t a d o p te d u n i t l M arch 1985. The m e a s u r e s i n c lu d e d p r o v is io n s fo r th e d e s i g n a t i o n of ESAs.
No a tte m p t w ill b e m ade to c h r o n ic le th e h i s t o r y o f th e new r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e rn e d w ith a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e , a s t h i s h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d in d e t a i l b y B a ld o c k . 5 H ow ever, a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s s h o u ld b e m a d e . I n O c to b er 1983, th e C om m ission of th e E u r o p e a n C om m unities p u t f o r w a r d a p a c k a g e o f m e a s u re s to r e p l a c e th e th r e e 1972 d i r e c t i v e s . T h ey in c lu d e d a n im p o r ta n t p r o c e d u r a l c h a n g e . The m e a s u re s w e re p ro p o s e d a s a n EC r e g u l a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a s a d i r e c t i v e . A r e g u l a t i o n , b e in g EC l e g i s l a t i o n d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e in m em ber s t a t e s , i s a f a r m ore f o r c e f u l v e h ic l e fo r C om m unity p o lic y t h a n a d i r e c t i v e w h ic h , a lth o u g h s t a t i n g b i n d i n g p o lic y o b j e c t i v e s , le a v e s th e p r o c e d u r e s fo r r e a l i s i n g th e o b je c t i v e s to th e d i s c r e t i o n o f e a c h m em ber s t a t e . O ften i n th e p a s t , th e f l e x i b i l i t y c o n c e r n in g im p le m e n ta tio n o ffe re d b y a d i r e c t i v e h a s b e e n e x p lo ite d b y m em ber s t a t e s in o r d e r to im p e d e r e a l i s a t i o n of
, . . 6
i t s o b j e c t iv e s .
From th e o u ts e t th e d r a f t r e g u l a t i o n s t r e s s e d th e n e e d to r e d i r e c t th e flow o f r e s o u r c e s to w a r d s s m a ll f a r m e r s . A lth o u g h c o m p ris in g a b o u t a t h i r d of th e t o t a l w ith in th e EC, c o l l e c t i v e l y th e y h a d g a i n e d l i t t l e b e n e f it from th e CAP. In 1984, fo r e x a m p le , th e l a s t y e a r u n d e r th e o ld d i r e c t i v e s , o n ly 2 .5 p e r c e n t of th e CAP b u d g e t w a s d i r e c t e d to w a r d s e l i m i n a t i n g th e s p e c i a l h a n d i c a p s e x p e r ie n c e d b y f a r m e r s in th e s p a r s e l y p o p u la te d a r e a s . 7 H ow ever, o n ly in l a t e r d r a f t s of th e r e g u l a t i o n w a s th e r e a n y re f e r e n c e to th e n e e d fo r " . . . m e a s u re s fo r th e p r o te c tio n a n d im p ro v e m e n t of th e e n v iro n m e n t . . . " , b u t e x a c t l y w h a t form th e s e w o u ld ta k e w a s th e s u b je c t of m uch d i s c u s s io n i n th e UK, th e m ost i n f l u e n t i a l b e in g th e d e l i b e r a t i o n s of th e H ouse of L o rd s S e le c t C om m ittee on th e E u r o p e a n C om m unity p u b l i s h e d in Ju n e 1984. The C om m ittee a r g u e d t h a t th e new r e g u l a t i o n s h o u ld becom e
" . . . th e s t a r t o f a n im p ro v e d a p p r o a c h to a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r u c - 0
t u r a l p o lic y . . . " , r a t h e r t h a n a v e h ic l e fo r th e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l UK a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y . C o n s id e r a b le i n e r t i a in dom es
t i c p o lic y w o u ld h a v e to be o v erco m e in o r d e r to e ffe c t s u c h a c h a n g e . T h is is e v i d e n t , fo r e x a m p le , from im p le m e n ta tio n of th e
LFA d i r e c t i v e , w h ic h b ecam e s im p ly a n a d j u n c t to a d o m e stic h i l l f a r m in g p o lic y d a t i n g b a c k to th e l a t e 1940s. g A d h e re n c e to t h i s p o lic y m e a n t a m o n g st o th e r t h i n g s t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of e l i g i b i l i t y fo r s u b s i d y w a s p r o b a b l y s t r i c t e r t h a n th e d i r e c t i v e r e q u i r e d .
I n m id -1 9 8 4 , h o w e v e r, th e tim e fo r re fo rm w a s o p p o r tu n e . W ith in th e UK, th e r e h a d b e e n p r o lo n g e d a n d m o u n tin g c r i t i c i s m of tw o e f f e c ts o f c u r r e n t EC a g r i c u l t u r a l p o lic y , n a m e ly , s u r p l u s food p r o d u c tio n a n d d e t e r i o r a t i o n in th e q u a l i t y of th e e n v ir o n m e n t.
T h ey w e re c o r r e c t l y p e r c e iv e d to b e c a u s a l l y l i n k e d . One outcom e of t h i s m o u n tin g c r i t i c i s m w a s a m i n i s t e r i c a l s ta te m e n t i n J u ly 1985 t h a t th e UK g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld s e e k to a u g m e n t th e new a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e r e g u l a t i o n w ith p r o v is io n s w h ic h w o u ld
" . . . e n a b l e u s in e n v ir o n m e n ta lly s e n s i t i v e a r e a s to e n c o u r a g e f a r m in g p r a c t i c e s w h ic h a r e c o n s o n a n t w ith c o n s e r v a t i o n ." The outcom e of t h i s UK i n i t i a t i v e w a s th e i n c l u s i o n o f th e s o - c a l l e d
" A r tic le 19" p r o v is io n s w ith in th e r e g u l a t i o n . A rtic le 19 p r o v i s io n s e n a b l e , b u t do n o t c o m p el, m em ber s t a t e s to s e le c t a r e a s w h e re e n v ir o n m e n ta l q u a l i t y w o u ld be a d v e r s e l y a f f e c te d b y a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d to g iv e f a r m e r s w ith in th e s e a r e a s i n c e n t i v e s to c o n tin u e t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s . D e s ig n a tio n of s u c h " e n v ir o n m e n ta lly s e n s i t i v e a r e a s " w o u ld h a v e to b e a p p r o v e d b y th e C om m ission. I n o r d e r to a v o id th e ESA schem e b e in g u s e d u n f a i r l y a s a n a d d i t i o n a l " i l l e g a l " n a t i o n a l s u b s i d y to f a r m e r s , i t w as o r i g i n a l l y e n v i s a g e d t h a t o n ly a s m a ll p r o p o r tio n of th e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d w ith in a m em ber s t a t e w o u ld be d e s i g n a t e d . In l a t e 1984, a s u g g e s te d c e i l i n g o f 3 to 4 p e r c e n t w a s b e in g b a n d i e d a b o u t. The UK h o p e d t h a t , in common w ith m ost o th e r a s p e c t s of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e n d i t u r e , th e schem e w o u ld be p a r t l y fu n d e d b y th e FEOGA ( th e E u ro p e a n A g r i c u l t u r a l G u id a n c e a n d G u a r a n t e e F u n d ) .
When th e r e g u l a t i o n w a s f i n a l l y a g r e e d i n M arch 1985, how
e v e r , no lim it on th e e x t e n t o f ESA w as im p o se d ; n e i t h e r w e re th e r e a n y p r o v is io n s fo r r e c o u p in g p a y m e n ts from th e FEOGA.
D u rin g 1987 A rtic le 19 is b e in g r e n e g o t i a t e d b y th e m em ber s t a t e s w ith th e UK s t i l l lo o k in g to re c o u p e x p e n d i t u r e from th e FEOGA.H In v ie w of th e c u r r e n t UK r e f u n d a r r a n g e m e n t s , re im b u rs e m e n t of a
p r o p o r tio n o f ESA p a y m e n ts w o u ld m ake l i t t l e f i n a n c i a l im p a c t, a lth o u g h a n i m p o r ta n t p r i n c i p l e is b e lie v e d to be a t s t a k e . F u r th e rm o re , th e f a i l u r e to r e c o v e r a c o n t r i b u t i o n from th e FEOGA does n o t m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t ESA f u n d i n g , a s a l l re p a y m e n ts from th e EC p a s s to th e T r e a s u r y , n o t to th e r e s p e c t i v e " s p e n d in g m i n i s t r y " .
3 . SUBSIDISING TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE IN THE UK
ESAs s h o u ld n o t b e s e e n in i s o l a t i o n . T h ey r e p r e s e n t m e re ly th e l a t e s t d e v e lo p m e n t in a s e q u e n c e o f m e a s u re s w ith in th e UK d e s ig n e d to p r o t e c t e n v ir o n m e n ta l r e s o u r c e s from th e f u l l e f f e c ts of m odern a g r i c u l t u r e . A lth o u g h no a tte m p t w ill be m ade to d i s c u s s m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts d e s ig n e d to p r o t e c t th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l i n t e r e s t of s p e c if ic s i t e s , i t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t l e g a l p r o v is io n s c o v e r in g s u c h c o n tin g e n c ie s w ere i n t r o d u c e d b y th e N a tio n a l P a r k s a n d A ccess to th e C o u n try s id e Act 1949 (fo r N a tio n a l N a tu re R e s e r v e s ) , th e C o u n try s id e Act 1968 (f o r S ite s o f S p e c ia l S c ie n tif ic I n t e r e s t ) a n d th e F ie ld M onum ents Act 1972 (f o r S c h e d u le d A n c ie n t M o n u m e n ts).
P a y m e n ts fo r m a n a g in g a s i t e fo r c o n s e r v a tio n p u r p o s e s , p r i o r to 1981 c a n b e s t b e r e g a r d e d a s " h o n o r a r i a " , fo r th e y d id n o t r e f l e c t th e t r u e econom ic a n d o p p o r t u n i t y c o s ts to la n d o w n e r s . I n d e e d , m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts c o v e r in g a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s it e s s t i l l in v o lv e r e l a t i v e l y low p a y m e n ts . S in c e 1981, h o w e v e r, th e o w n e r of a s ite w ith a w ild lif e c o n s e r v a tio n i n t e r e s t c a n e x p e c t to be c o m p e n s a te d fo r th e " lo s s of p r o f i t fo re g o n e " to m a n a g e th e l a n d in o r d e r to c o n s e r v e i t s i n t e r e s t . U n d er th e p r i n c i p l e o f " lo s s of p r o f i t f o r e g o n e " , p a y m e n ts a ls o in c l u d e c o m p e n s a tio n fo r p r o f i t s t h a t w o u ld h a v e a c c r u e d from g r a n t - a i d e d im p ro v e m e n t.12
In th e l a t e 1970s a n d e a r l y 1980s, a d i f f e r e n t s c a le of p r o b lem in e n v ir o n m e n ta l m a n a g e m e n t e m e rg e d , n a m e ly , th e p r o te c tio n of w hole l a n d s c a p e s . S ite p r e s e r v a t i o n is a p ro b le m w h ic h c a n be more c l e a r l y d e f in e d a n d i s one t h a t c a n b e m ore c lo s e ly c o n s t r a i n e d c o m p a re d to th e c o m p le x itie s o f m a n a g in g w h o le l a n d s c a p e s . H o w ev er, i t is b eco m in g i n c r e a s i n g l y e v id e n t t h a t c e r t a i n
e n v ir o n m e n ta l p ro b le m s c a n o n ly b e re s o lv e d a t t h i s l a r g e - s c a l e l e v e l . T h u s , fo r e x a m p le , th e c o n s e r v a tio n o f a r a i s e d bog d e p e n d s u p o n th e m a n a g e m e n t of th e h y d r o l o g i c a l b a s i n i n w h ic h i t i s s i t u a t e d ; m o o rla n d r a p t o r s d e p e n d u p o n a p a r t i c u l a r m ix of u s e o fte n e x te n d i n g o v e r m an y s q u a r e k ilo m e te r s ; s c e n ic r e s o u r c e s c a n o n ly b e c o n s e rv e d on a l a r g e s c a l e ; th e p r o te c tio n o f a m e d ia e v a l f i e l d p a t t e r n r e q u i r e s a n e x te n s iv e a r e a .
D e te r io r a tio n in th e q u a l i t y o f m an y e n v iro n m e n ts is o fte n th e r e s u l t of in c r e m e n ta l c h a n g e . The a g g r e g a t e e ffe c t o f p ie c e m e a l c h a n g e o n ly becom es a p p a r e n t w h en th e w h o le c h a r a c t e r of a n a r e a h a s a l t e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . In s u c h s i t u a t i o n s , i t is im p o s s ib le to im p lic a te one s p e c if ic e v e n t , s u c h a s th e p l a n t i n g o f a p a r t i c u l a r c o n if e r p l a n t a t i o n , th e re m o v a l o f a s p e c if ic h e d g e ro w o r th e p lo u g h in g o u t of a n i n d i v i d u a l m eadow , a s th e w a te r s h e d of c h a n g e . Such in c r e m e n t a l c h a n g e is d i f f i c u l t to c o n t r o l , y e t i t s r e g u l a t i o n re m a in s o ne o f th e m a jo r c h a l l e n g e s c u r r e n t l y f a c in g l a n d s c a p e m a n a g e m e n t. The f i r s t a tte m p t to r e s o lv e t h i s p ro b le m i n th e UK in v o lv e d E xm oor.
Some u p l a n d a r e a s in th e UK, s u c h a s E xm oor, a r e now am en a b l e to a g r i c u l t u r a l im p ro v e m e n t in t h a t th e c o n s t r a i n t s on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c tio n , s u c h a s low i n h e r e n t f e r t i l i t y o r u n f a v o u r a b l e w a te r s t a t u s , c a n be re m e d ie d b y th e a p p l i c a t i o n of m od ern a g r i c u l t u r a l te c h n o lo g y . I n th e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d , fo r e x a m p le , c o n s id e r a b l e in r o a d s h a v e b e e n m ade in to th e m o o rla n d c o re o f E xm oor, a s h e a t h e r v e g e t a t i o n h a s b e e n p lo u g h e d u p a n d c o n v e r te d in to g r a s s l a n d (5000 h e c t a r e s b e tw e e n 1947 a n d 1 9 7 7 ), s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t i n g th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e a r e a . C u r r e n t l y in th e UK, s u c h c o n v e r s io n s c a n n o t b e p r o h i b i t e d ; in d e e d , u n t i l r e c e n t l y , g r a n t s h a v e b e e n a v a i l a b l e from th e M in is try of A g r i c u l t u r e , F is h e r i e s a n d Food (MAFF) to s u b s i d i s e th e e n v ir o n m e n ta lly d a m a g in g o p e r a t i o n s .
M o o rla n d c o n v e r s io n on Exm oor p ro v e d to b e s u c h a c o n tr o v e r s i a l i s s u e t h a t th e ( L a b o u r ) g o v e rn m e n t a p p o in te d L o rd P o r c h e s te r to p r e p a r e a r e p o r t on l a n d u s e on Exm oor i n 1977- The m a in re c o m m e n d a tio n of th e P o r c h e s te r r e p o r t w a s t h a t a fo rm a l sy ste m
o f M o o rla n d C o n s e rv a tio n O rd e rs b i n d i n g in p e r p e t u i t y s h o u ld b e i n tr o d u c e d w ith fa r m e r s c o m p e n s a te d fo r th e lo s s of t h e i r r i g h t s b y a s in g l e p a y m e n t. 13 B efore a n y a c ti o n c o u ld b e ta k e n on t h i s re c o m m e n d a tio n , e v e n ts w ere o v e r t a k e n b y th e e le c tio n o f a new
( c o n s e r v a t i v e ) g o v e rn m e n t in M ay 1979, a n d f a rm in g i n t e r e s t s w e re a b le to p e r s u a d e th e new g o v e rn m e n t t h a t a v o l u n t a r y sch em e w o u ld be e q u a l l y e f f e c t iv e . F u r th e r m o r e , in d r a w in g u p th e s u b s e q u e n t f i n a n c i a l g u id e lin e s fo r th e v o l u n t a r y schem e w ith th e Exm oor N a tio n a l P a r k A u th o rity i n A p ril 1981, th e y w e re a b l e to w in th e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c e s sio n t h a t c o m p e n s a tio n c o u ld b e t a k e n a s a n a n u a l p a y m e n t r e l a t e d to th e lo s s of p r o f i t , i n c l u d i n g a n y t h a t w o u ld h a v e a c c r u e d w ith g r a n t a i d . T h is s u b s e q u e n tly b e ca m e th e m odel fo r m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts u n d e r th e W ild life a n d C o u n tr y s id e A ct.
F o r c o n s e r v a t i o n , th e Exm oor sch em e r e p r e s e n t e d q u i t e a c h e a p d e a l . The p o l i t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f th e i s s u e w as s u f f i c i e n t l y a c u te fo r i t to b e fu n d e d a lm o st t o t a l l y b y th e T r e a s u r y . T h u s , 90 p e r c e n t of th e c o s t o f g r a n t s w a s m et b y c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t w ith o n ly 10 p e r c e n t com ing from th e N a tio n a l P a r k A u th o r it y . Key d e c is io n s on m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts l a y fir m ly in th e e n v iro n m e n t a l s e c t o r , n a m e ly , w ith th e N a tio n a l P a r k A u th o r ity . By 1 Sep
te m b e r 1984, s e v e n a g re e m e n ts h a d b e e n c o m p le te d a n d s i x w ere u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n ." ^
The n e x t im p o r ta n t d e v e lo p m e n t i n th e f i e l d of l a n d s c a p e co n s e r v a t i o n c e n t r e d on H a lv e r g a te M a r s h e s . The N o rfo lk B ro a d s is a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y im p o r ta n t c o m p le x o f w e tla n d s re n o w n fo r a r i c h f l o r a a n d f a u n a a n d a d i s t i n c t i v e , a t t r a c t i v e l a n d s c a p e . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s of th e a r e a a r e low p r o d u c t i v i t y g r a s s l a n d , m a in ta in e d p r i m a r i l y b y c a t t l e g r a z i n g , a n d h ig h w a te r t a b l e s . The l a n d , h o w e v e r, is p o t e n t i a l l y p r o d u c t i v e a n d , w ith h ig h a r t i f i c i a l p r i c e s fo r c e r e a l s a n d im p ro v e m e n t g r a n t s , c a p a b l e o f y i e l d in g s i g n i f i c a n t r e t u r n s on in v e s t m e n t. Much g r a s s l a n d w ith in th e a r e a h a s b e e n c o n v e r te d to a r a b l e w ith a m a rk e d d im in u tio n in i t s s c e n ic a n d w ild lif e i n t e r e s t . A fte r a p ro lo n g e d a n d b i t t e r d i s p u t e b e tw e e n f a r m e r s a n d e n v ir o n m e n ta l i n t e r e s t s , th e d e a d lo c k w as b ro k e n w h e n , a s a r e s u l t of a C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission i n i t i a t i v e , a
s p e c i a l m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n t schem e c o v e r in g 2,5000 h e c t a r e s of H a lv e r g a te M a rsh e s w as d ra w n u p in o r d e r to m a in ta in th e a r e a a s p e r m a n e n t g r a s s l a n d .
The sch em e d if f e r e d so m ew h at from t h a t d e v is e d fo r E xm oor.
The B ro a d s G ra z in g M a rsh e s C o n s e rv a tio n Schem e is a d m in is te r e d th r o u g h th e r e g i o n a l o ffic e of MAFF a n d i t i s fu n d e d j o i n t l y (5 0 :5 0 ) b y MAFF a n d th e C o u n try s id e C o m m issio n . A f l a t r a t e p a y m e n t o f £125 p e r h e c t a r e p e r y e a r p ro v e d s u f f i c i e n t l y a t t r a c t i v e fo r 111 o w n e rs a n d t e n a n t s to jo in th e schem e b y th e tim e r e g i s - t r a t i o n c lo s e d on 31 M ay 1985. 15 I n m an y r e s p e c t s , th e H a lv e r g a te schem e is b e s t r e g a r d e d a s a n in te r im m e a s u re d e s ig n e d to m a i n t a i n th e s t a t u s q u o w h ile th e d e t a i l s o f th e ESA sch em e w ere r e s o l v e d . S u b s e q u e n tly , th e H a lv e r g a te a r e a h a s b e e n i n c o r p o r a te d in to th e B ro a d s ESA a n d w ill b e a d m in is te r e d in th e w a y d e s c r ib e d in th e fo llo w in g s e c tio n of t h i s p a p e r .
4 . DESIGNATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS IN THE UK
ESAs r e p r e s e n t th e n e x t a n d p r o b a b l y th e f i n a l s t a g e in th e e v o lu t i o n o f m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts fo r c o n s e r v in g w h o le l a n d s c a p e s w ith in th e UK. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d e n v i ro n m e n ta l i n t e r e s t s w ith in th e schem e c a n b e s t b e g a u g e d from a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of th e w a y ESAs h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a n d w ill be a d m in is te r e d in th e UK. The p r o c e d u r e s a d o p te d a c k n o w le d g e d th e t h r e a t s t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n p o s e s n o t o n ly fo r w ild lif e a n d s c e n ic , b u t a ls o fo r h i s t o r i c a l r e s o u r c e s . As s u c h , i t g o es b e y o n d th e A r tic le 19 d e f in itio n o f ESAs a s " . . . a r e a s of r e c o g n is e d im p o r ta n c e from a n e c o lo g ic a l p o in t of v ie w " . The e n a b li n g l e g i s l a t i o n g iv i n g th e M in is te r p o w e rs to d e s ig n a te ESAs, th e A g r i c u l t u r e Act 1986, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y m ay a ls o b e d e fin e d on th e b a s i s of t h e i r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l , a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c i n t e r e s t .
I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p r o c e d u r e s w e re a d o p te d i n th e v a r i o u s se m i-a u to n o m o u s p a r t s of th e UK. In t h i s s e c tio n , th e s i t u a t i o n in E n g la n d a n d W ales i s d e s c r ib e d in d e t a i l
w ith p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e to th e m a jo r d if f e r e n c e s in S c o tla n d a n d N o rth e rn I r e l a n d .
D u rin g 1985, w h ile th e A g r i c u l t u r e B ill w a s s t i l l b e fo re P a r l i a m e n t , th e s t a t u t o r y b o d ie s r e s p o n s i b l e fo r a d v i s i n g g o v e r n m ent on e n v ir o n m e n ta l m a tte r s s e t in t r a i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d e s ig n e d to i d e n t i f y a r e a s s u i t a b l e fo r p o s s ib le d e s i g n a t i o n a s ESAs. In E n g la n d a n d W ales, th e C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission, th e N a tu re Con
s e r v a n c y C o u n c il (NCC) a n d th e H is to ric B u ild in g s a n d M onum ents C om m ission o f E n g la n d ( E n g lis h H e r i t a g e ) , a lo n g w ith i t s W elsh c o u n t e r p a r t , CADW, b e g a n w ith a l i s t of 150 a r e a s w h ic h s h o u ld b e i n v e s t i g a t e d fo r t h e i r ESA p o t e n t i a l . T h is w a s r e d u c e d to 46 s i t e s c o m p ly in g w ith f iv e c r i t e r i a c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y fo r ESA s t a t u s . T h ese a r e a r e a s :
( i) o f n a t i o n a l e n v ir o n m e n ta l s i g n i f i c a n c e ;
( i i ) w hose c o n s e r v a tio n d e p e n d s u p o n th e a d o p tio n , m a in te n a n c e o r e x te n s io n o f a p a r t i c u l a r form of f a r m in g p r a c t i c e ;
( i i i ) in w h ic h c h a n g e s in e x i s t i n g f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s w h ic h p o se a m a jo r t h r e a t to th e e n v iro n m e n t h a v e o c c u r r e d o r a r e l i k e l y to o c c u r .
( iv ) w h ic h r e p r e s e n t a d i s c r e t e a n d c o h e r e n t u n i t o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l i n t e r e s t ;
(v ) w h ic h w o u ld p e rm it th e e c o n o m ic a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a p p r o - . . 16
p r i a t e c o n s e r v a t i o n a i d s .
F ig u r e 1 sh o w s t h a t th e 46 a r e a s a r e w id e ly d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r E n g la n d a n d W ales, a n d c o v e r a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r tio n of th e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s c a p e . A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e no d e t a i l s of th e t o t a l a r e a in v o lv e d , i t is c l e a r l y i n e x c e s s of th e 2 to 4 p e r c e n t d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r . T h is i s n o t to s a y t h a t th e r e m a in in g 104 w e re of no v a l u e . Some a r e a s w e re r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e th e f e a t u r e s o f i n t e r e s t w ere too d i f f u s e l y d i s p e r s e d in th e la n d s c a p e a n d , t h u s , f a i l e d to m eet c r i t e r i o n v . As s u c h , th e s e a r e a s w e re r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e th e y f a i l e d to s a t i s f y a n econom ic f a c t o r r a t h e r t h a n a n y e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n s i d e r a t i o n . E ven th e d e c is io n to i n v e s t i g a t e th e s e 46 s i t e s seem s to h a v e " . . . a n n o y e d W h ite h a ll" , a s a t t h a t tim e th e g o v e rn m e n t w a s t h i n k i n g of d e s i g n a t i n g o n ly f iv e o r s i x ESAs t h r o u g h o u t th e UK. P o t e n t i a l l y , t h e r e f o r e , m uch of th e r u r a l e n v iro n m e n t of E n g la n d a n d W ales is s t i l l o f s u c h q u a l i t y a n d
s u f f i c i e n t l y t h r e a t e n e d to b e c o n s id e r e d a s e n v ir o n m e n ta lly s e n s i n' v e .
F ig u r e 1: A reas i n i t i a l l y c o n s id e r e d fo r p o s s ib le ESA d e s ig n a tio n in E n g la n d a n d W ales.
The 46 w e re re d u c e d to a s h o r t - l i s t o f 14 w h ic h , in th e w o rd s o f th e C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission, " . . . w o u ld b e n e f it from e a r l y d e s i g n a t i o n " . E ven th e r e m a in in g a r e a s w e re n o t c o n s id e r e d u n s u i t a b l e . 18 C o n s u lta n ts w e re a p p o in te d to c a r r y o u t a d e t a i l e d e v a l u a t i o n of th e l a n d s c a p e , e c o lo g ic a l a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s ; to i d e n t i f y a n a p p r o p r i a t e b o u n d a r y ; to d e fin e d e t a i l e d fa rm m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s a n d recom m end a s u i t a b l e le v e l of g r a n t fo r e a c h a r e a . On th e b a s i s o f t h i s w o rk , th e fo u r s t a t u t o r y b o d ie s m ade a j o i n t s u b m is s io n re c o m m en d in g t h a t " . . . th e G o v ern m en t s h o u ld d e s i g n a t e a l l 14 a r e a s in th e f i r s t r o u n d . . . " . I t w a s a r g u e d t h a t th e w id e ly k n o w n i n t e n t i o n o f th e g o v e rn m e n t to d e s i g n a t e o n ly 5 o r 6 a r e a s w a s b a s e d u p o n a m i n i s t e r i a l
s ta re m e n t t h a t £6 m illio n p e r a n n u m w ere a v a i l a b l e to f u n d th e sch em e. I n r e f u s i n g to r a n k s i t e s , th e r e p o r t to th e m i n i s t e r n o te s t h a t e a c h s i t e c o u ld be fu n d e d w ith o n ly a m o d e st, in te rm s of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e n d i t u r e , i n c r e a s e i n th e b u d g e t . I t w a s e s tim a te d t h a t th e a n n u a l c o s t o f 14 ESAs in E n g la n d a n d W ales w o u ld a m o u n t to £ 9 .2 5 m illio n a n d l e s s i n th e i n i t i a l y e a r s of
" ta k e u p " .
In S c o tla n d a d i f f e r e n t p r o c e d u r e w a s a d o p te d to p ro d u c e a s h o r t - l i s t of p o t e n t i a l ESAs. A w o rk in g p a r t y c o m p ris in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f A g r ic u ltu r e fo r S c o tla n d (DAFS), th e R u ra l E n v iro n m e n t a n d N a tu re C o n s e rv a tio n D iv is io n a n d th e H is to ric B u ild in g s a n d M onum ents D ir e c to r a te of th e S c o ttis h D ev el
opm ent D e p a rtm e n t (SSD), th e C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission fo r S c o tla n d (CCS) a n d th e N a tu re C o n s e rv a n c y C o u n c il (NCC). I n i t i a l l y , NCC a n d CCS p ro p o s e d 20 a r e a s c o n s id e r e d o f ESA p o t e n t i a l , a n d from t h i s a s h o r t - l i s t o f fiv e a r e a s w a s d r a w n u p . T h ese w e re s e le c te d b y DAFS in th e l i g h t o f com m ents r e c e iv e d from n o n - e n v ir o n m e n ta l o u ts id e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e N a tio n a l F a r m e r s ' U nion fo r S c o tla n d , th e S c o ttis h C o u n try L a n d o w n e r s ' F e d e r a t i o n , th e H ig h l a n d a n d I s l a n d s D ev elo p m en t B o a rd , th e C ro fte rs C om m ission a n d th e F o r e s t r y C o m m issio n , a n d fo llo w in g c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith SDD, CCS a n d NCC. A d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n of e a c h s ite w a s u n d e r t a k e n b y th e w o rk in g g ro u p a n d i t s re c o m m e n d a tio n s to g o v e rn m e n t p u b - lis h e d i n A u g u s t 1986. N o tin g t h a t o n e , o r p o s s i b l y tw o , ESAs m ig h t be d e s i g n a t e d in S c o tla n d a t t h i s s t a g e , th e W orking P a r t y r e p o r t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw e e n tw o " . . . to p p r i o r i t y c a n d i d a t e s fo r th e f i r s t r o u n d . . . " a n d th r e e " . . . lo w e r p r i o r i t y c a n d i d a t e s " .
The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sy ste m in N o rth e rn I r e l a n d i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t w h ic h e x i s t s e ls e w h e re i n th e UK. F o r e x a m p le , m an y of th e s t a t u t o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l o r g a n i s a t i o n a r e d i s c h a r g e d b y c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t. As a r e s u l t of c o n s u l t a tio n s in v o l v i n g th e D e p a rtm e n ts of E n v iro n m e n t (N o rth e rn I r e l a n d ) a n d A g r i c u l t u r e (N o rth e rn I r e l a n d ) a n d o u ts id e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , a s h o r t - l i s t o f n in e s i t e s w a s d ra w n u p ; one w a s reco m m en d ed a s a p r i o r i t y fo r d e s i g n a t i o n .
M i n i s t e r i a l d e c is io n s on a r e a s to b e d e s i g n a t e d a s ESAs w e re a n n o u n c e d d u r i n g th e a u tu m n o f 1986 fo llo w in g t h r e e m o n th s d e l i b e r a t i o n s on th e r e p o r t s s u b m itte d to g o v e rn m e n t. H o w ev er, b e fo re th e sch em es fo r th e fo u r c o u n t r i e s c a n be im p le m e n te d , th e n e c e s s a r y s t a t u t o r y i n s tr u m e n ts m u st be a u t h o r i s e d b y P a r l i a m e n t . E n g la n d a n d W ales h a v e a c te d in ta n d e m th r o u g h o u t th e d e l i b e r a tio n s on ESAs a n d th e s t a t u t o r y in s t r u m e n t s c o v e r in g th e tw o c o u n t r i e s h a v e b e e n a p p r o v e d . The schem e o f f i c i a l l y com m enced on 1 M arch 1987. S t a t u t o r y i n s tr u m e n ts c o v e r in g S c o tla n d a n d N o rth e rn I r e l a n d h a v e y e t to b e p r e s e n t e d , b u t t h e i r a u t h o r i s a t i o n i s , in e f f e c t , a f o r m a l i t y .
The in f lu e n c e o f n o n - e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s i s e v i d e n t in th e l i s t of ESAs w h ic h w a s a p p r o v e d b y g o v e rn m e n t. In E n g la n d fiv e a r e a s h a v e b e e n d e s i g n a t e d ( f ig u r e 2 ) . W h ereas f o u r c o r r e s p o n d ,
F ig u r e 2: A reas d e s ig n a te d (s h a d e d ) a n d s h o r t - lis t e d fo r ESA d e s ig n a tio n in E n g la n d a n d W ales d u r in g 1986.
»
w ith o n ly m in o r v a r i a t i o n s , to th e p r o p o s a ls of th e C o u n tr y s id e C o m m issio n , th e S o u th Downs ESA i s a p p r o x im a te ly h a l f t h a t reco m m e n d e d , m a in ly " . . . b e c a u s e o f th e m um ber of f a r m e r s l i k e l y to s e e k s u b s i d i e s " . 21 Those who h a v e b e e n e x c lu d e d from th e S o u th Downs ESA a p p e a r to be u n h a p p y a b o u t th e d e c is io n , w h i l s t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , f a r m e r s in th e P e n n in e D a les a n d C a m b ria n M o u n ta in s ESAs a r e r e p o r t e d to see in c l u s i o n a s a t h r e a t to t h e i r i n d e p e n -
, 22
d e n c e .
I n S c o tla n d one of th e p r i o r i t y a r e a s , B r e a d a lb a n e ( f ig u r e 3 ) , h a s b e e n d e s i g n a t e d , b u t a " lo w e r p r i o r i t y c a n d i d a t e " , Loch Lom ond, h a s b e e n p r e f e r r e d a b o v e th e M a c h a ir L a n d s of th e U is ts a n d B e n b e c u la . The r e a s o n s fo r t h i s a r e u n c l e a r . An o f f i c i a l a t DAFS 23 c la im e d t h a t b o th " . . . t h e U ists a n d Loch Lom ond w ere r e g a r d e d a s s tr o n g c a n d i d a t e s b u t a f t e r w e ig h in g u p a l l th e f a c t s
F ig u r e
M achair Lands o f th e U i s t s and B en b ecu la
3: A reas d e s ig n a te d (s h a d e d ) a n d s h o r t - lis t e d fo r ESA d e s ig n a tio n in S c o tla n d d u r in g 1986.
i t w a s d e c id e d , on b a l a n c e , t h a t Loch Lomond h a d th e g r e a t e r c la im . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t w as c o n s id e r e d t h a t th e ESA schem e w o u ld t i e i n w e ll w ith th e a im s o f th e Loch Lomond R e g io n a l P a r k . "
I t m u st b e q u e s ti o n e d , h o w e v e r, i n w h a t w a y " a l l th e f a c t s "
a v a i l a b l e to th e M in is te r d if f e r e d from th e in fo r m a tio n a v a i l a b l e to th e W o rk in g P a r t y so t h a t th e y a r r i v e d a t d i f f e r e n t c o n c lu s io n s . P e r h a p s o th e r f a c t o r s in f l u e n c e d th e m i n i s t e r i a l d e c is io n . The w e ll kn o w n a n t i p a t h y of th e c r o f tin g c o m m u n ity in th e " h i g h l a n d s a n d i s l a n d s " o f S c o tla n d to w a rd s c o n s e r v a t i o n , h o w e v e r, is a p o l i t i c a l d im e n sio n t h a t s h o u ld n o t b e i g n o r e d . The p ro p o s e d U is ts a n d B e n b e c u la ESA c o v e r s a n a r e a in c l u d e d w ith in a d i f f e r e n t EC fu n d e d sch e m e , n a m e ly , th e I n t e g r a t e d D ev elo p m en t P ro g ra m m e (ID P ) fo r th e W estern I s l e s . The r e p o r t of th e S c o ttis h W orking P a r t y i n d i c a t e s t h a t " . . . th e ESA i s n o t l i k e l y to c o n f lic t w ith
9 /
th e c h a n g e s o r im p ro v e m e n ts b r o u g h t a b o u t b y th e ID P ."
H ow ever th e p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of b e in g s e e n to b e in c o n f lic t w ith c r o f t e r s , o r o f a n e m b a r a s s i n g l y low le v e l of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e schem e m ay h a v e in f l u e n c e d th e d e c i s i o n . The schem e c o v e r in g E n g la n d a n d W ales d i f f e r s in a n o t h e r im p o r ta n t r e s p e c t from t h a t w h ic h w ill o p e r a te in S c o tla n d . I n d r a w in g u p i t s re c o m m en d a t i o n s , th e C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission w a s c o n s c io u s o f th e n e e d to d e v is e a r r a n g e m e n t s w h ic h w o u ld p e r m it th e " e c o n o m ic a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s e r v a tio n a i d s " . C o n s e q u e n tly , f l a t r a t e p e r h e c t a r e p a y m e n ts w e re a d v i s e d fo r a l l a r e a s , a l t h o u g h , in th e c a s e o f th e S o m erset L e v e ls a n d Moors a n d th e B ro a d s ESAs, th e s e w ill be p a i d a t a h i g h e r o r lo w e r r a t e d e p e n d in g u p o n a p a r t i c u l a r a g r e e m e n t. I n S c o tla n d , a s m a ll n u m b e r of f a r m e r s a r e l i k e l y to be in v o lv e d in ESAs, a s o n ly 277 fa r m e r s h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t l a n d h o ld in g w ith in th e tw o a r e a s . C o n s e q u e n tly , a r e l a t i v e l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n d e v is e d fo r S c o tla n d a n d f a r m e r s w ill b e o ff e re d tw o ty p e s of p a y m e n t. In th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , a r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll p e r h e c t a r e p a y m e n t w ill be m a d e, i n p a r t to c o v e r th e n e g a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s p la c e d on a fa rm e r a n d in p a r t to f in a n c e th e p r o d u c tio n o f a c o n s e r v a tio n p l a n fo r th e f a r m . S t a n d a r d p a y m e n ts w ill th e n b e m ade to f in a n c e th e c o n s e r v a tio n w o rk s i n c lu d e d in th e a g r e e d p l a n . With
th e v e r y m uch l a r g e r n u m b e r o f f a r m e r s i n v o l v e d , s u c h a schem e w o u ld b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore e x p e n s iv e to a d m i n i s t e r in E n g la n d a n d W ales.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e n in e ESAs d e s i g n a t e d d u r i n g t h i s f i r s t ro u n d a r e sh o w n i n su m m a ry form i n T a b le I . D e ta ile d c o s ti n g of th e schem e a t p r e s e n t i s d i f f i c u l t . I n k e e p in g w ith th e p r e c e d e n t s e t b y th e Exm oor a n d H a lv e r g a te s c h e m e s, p a r t i c i p a t i o n is on a v o l u n t a r y b a s i s . G o v ern m en t h a s b e e n r e s o l u t e t h a t l a n d s c a p e c o n s e r v a tio n s h o u ld n o t b e p u t on a m a n d a to r y b a s i s , u n lik e th e c o n s e r v a tio n o f s i t e s o f w il d l i f e o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l im p o r ta n c e w h e re n a t u r e c o n s e r v a tio n o r d e r s a n d th e r i s k o f p r o s e c u tio n fo r d a m a g in g s c h e d u le d a n c i e n t m onum ents u n d e r p i n s a g r e e m e n ts . C o n s e q u e n tly , th e c o s t o f ESAs w ill d e p e n d u p o n th e le v e l of u p t a k e b y f a r m e r s a n d th e l e v e l o f p a y m e n t o f f e r e d . C l e a r l y , th e tw o f a c t o r s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d . I t is n o t n e c e s s a r y fo r e v e r y f a r m e r w ith in a n ESA to p a r t i c i p a t e in o r d e r to m ak e th e schem e a s u c c e s s . The r a t e of p a y m e n t, h o w e v e r, m u st b e p itc h e d s u f f i c i e n t l y h ig h to e n tic e m ost f a r m e r s to p a r t i c i p a t e . The f i n a n c i a l d a t a in T a b le I a r e b a s e d u p o n a 75 p e r c e n t u p t a k e . The ESA w ill b e t o t a l l y fu n d e d b y th e M in is try o f A g r i c u l t u r e a n d a d m in is te r e d th r o u g h th e r e g i o n a l o fic e o f MAFF a n d i t s s i s t e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s in e a c h of th e f o u r c o u n t r i e s .
The m a in n e e d w h ile th e schem e is in o p e r a t i o n a p p e a r s to b e a p p r o p r i a t e m o n ito r in g . T h e se s h o u ld aim a t tw o o b je c t iv e s . F i r s t , i t is n e c e s s a r y to e n s u r e t h a t th e le v e l o f u p t a k e i s s u f f i c ie n t to a c h ie v e c o n s e r v a tio n o b j e c t i v e s . MAFF p r o d u c e d g u id a n c e n o te s fo r f a r m e r s in E n g la n d a n d W ales to c o in c id e w ith th e l a u n c h o f th e schem e on 1 M arch 1987. I n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r s w ith in e a c h ESA w ill r e c e iv e th e l i t e r a t u r e a n d w ill be c o n ta c te d b y MAFF s u b s e q u e n t l y i f i n i t i a l u p t a k e i s lo w . S e c o n d ly , m o n ito r in g m ust aim a t p o l i c i n g . The m a jo r d i f f i c u l t y a p p e a r s to b e to p r e v e n t f a r m e r s f r a u d u l e n t l y t a k i n g p a y m e n ts a n d , a t th e sam e tim e , i n t e n s i f y i n g . Some a b u s e s w i l l b e e a s y to i d e n t i f y . H o w ev er, in o th e r c a s e s (fo r e x a m p le , e x c e e d in g th e s t r i c t lim i t s on f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y to c o n s e r v e s u c h f e a t u r e s a s h e r b r ic h m ead o w s) a b u s e s m ay b e d i f f i c u l t to d e te c t. U ltim a te ly , th e
ESA AREA (ha) MAIN EXISTING USE MAJOR THREATS ANNUAL COST (Em)
Breadalbane 120,000* Extensive h i l l fa r m in g -
sheep, store c a t t le
( i ) blanket a ffo re s ta tio n
( i i ) neglect o f landscape features ( i i i ) overgrazing o f s e n s itiv e h ab itats
0.52
Broads 13,000 Pasture and meadow ( i ) grassland conversion to arable
( i i ) changes in stocking density
1.575
Cambrian Mountains 40,000 Extensive h i l l fa r m in g -
sheep, store c a t t le
( i ) a ffo re s ta tio n ( i i ) moorland conversion ( i i i ) increased stocking
1.2
Loch Lomond 40,800“ Part in te n s iv e c a t t le ;
p art extensive h i l l farming— sheep
( i , expansion o f fo re s try ( i i ) neglect o f landscape features ( i i i ) overgrazing o f s e n s itiv e h ab itats
0.267
Pennine Dales 13,000 H i l l sheep, store c a t t le ( i ) loss o f hay meadows by ploughing, drainage and f e r t i l i z e r use
( i i ) neglect o f landscape features ( i i i ) construction o f farm buildings
0.78
Somerset Levels and Moors 20,000 D a iry , beef and sheep on wet meadows
( i ) drainage
( i i ) grassland improvement ( i i i ) conversion to arable
0 .7 5 - 1.125
South Downs ? 3,500 Extensive g r a z in g -
sheep and c a t t le
( i ) grassland conversion to arable ( i i ) scrub invasion
( i i i ) neglect o f landscape features
? 0.35
West Penrith 6,500 Sm all-scale dairying ( i ) reclamation o f scrub and moor
( i i ) neglect o f landscape features
0.25
Mountains o f Mourne No data ye t published on th is ESA
“91=
‘ includes area o f Loch Rannoch and Loch Tay
“ includes area o f Loch Lomond
s u c c e s s o f th e schem e w ill depend, u p o n b e in g a b le to e d u c a te f a rm e rs in ESAs a w a y from th e t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w o f th e "go o d fa r m e r " t h a t i n c r e a s i n g th e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l a n d i s a v i r t u e .
5 . A SIGNIFICANT LOST OPPORTUNITY?
I t h a s b e e n c la im e d 25 t h a t m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts c o v e r in g S ite s of S p e c ia l S c ie n tif ic I n t e r e s t (SSSIs) u n d e r th e W ild life a n d C oun
t r y s i d e Act 1981 a r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d r a i n on th e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e fo r n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n . The m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts m ade b y NCC to p r e v e n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , i n f a c t s a v e MAFF c o n s i d e r i b l e s u m s. W ithout th e a g re e m e n ts MAFF w o u ld h a v e to p a y th e g r a n t a i d to s u b s i d i s e th e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . I t i s c la im e d t h a t a b a l a n c e w o u ld be r e s t o r e d i f MAFF w e re r e s p o n s i b l e fo r s u b s i d i s i n g t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s u s t a i n e d fo r e n v ir o n m e n ta l p u r p o s e s . The s e q u e n c e o f sch em es fo r f u n d in g " n o n i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n " , d e s c r ib e d in t h i s p a p e r ( E x m o o r-H a lv e rg a te -E S A ) c a ta l o g u e s th e s h i f t of f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l to th e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c to r . A lth o u g h s u p e r f i c i a l l y t h i s m ay a p p e a r a w elcom e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i t is im p o r ta n t to c o n s id e r i t s f u l l im p li
c a t i o n s . M an a g e m en t a g re e m e n ts c o v e r in g SSSIs a r e e r r o n e o u s ly seen a s a d r a i n on th e lim ite d r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e fo r n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n . In m an y r e s p e c t s , h o w e v e r, m uch o f t h i s is "new m oney" a n d to d a te th e g o v e rn m e n t a p p e a r s to b e h o n o u rin g a com m itm ent to p r o v id e a d e q u a t e f u n d s fo r t h i s p u r p o s e . T h u s , NCC's g r a n t from g o v e rn m e n t g re w from £ 1 8 .1 m illio n in 1985-86 to
£ 3 2 .1 m illio n i n 1986-87. F u r th e r m o r e , NCC h a s b e e n a b le to i n s i s t t h a t th e n e e d fo r a n a g re e m e n t on c o n s e r v a tio n g r o u n d s is th e u p p e rm o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n in th e a l l o c a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s .
With ESAs, t h i s is c l e a r l y n o t th e c a s e . The s t a t u t o r y c o n s e r v a t i o n o r g a n i s a t i o n s c a l l e d u p o n to a d v i s e on a p p r o p r i a t e e n v ir o n m e n ta lly s e n s i t i v e a r e a s i d e n t i f i e d m ore t h a n 20 th r o u g h o u t th e UK w h ic h w o u ld b e n e f it from im m e d ia te d e s i g n a t i o n . With r e s p e c t to 14 a r e a s in E n g la n d a n d W ales, th e m in is te r s w ere a d v is e d b y th e C o u n try s id e C om m ission t h a t no r a n k i n g w o u ld be u n d e r t a k e n a n d i t w as reco m m en d ed t h a t a l l s h o u ld be d e s i g n a t e d .
E ven th e 32 o th e r s i t e s w ere n o t c o n s id e r e d " u n s u i t a b l e " fo r d e s i g n a t i o n . T h u s , a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r tio n of th e E n g lis h c o u n t r y s id e i s s t i l l p o t e n t i a l l y ESA. A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s in S c o tla n d a n d N o rth e rn I r e l a n d , a lth o u g h h e re th e t h r e a t o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n is p e r h a p s n o t so g r e a t .
The d e s i g n a t i o n o f ESAs d u r i n g 1986 w a s d e te r m in e d b y th e b u d g e t , £7 m illio n , n o t i o n a l l y s e t a s id e fo r th e p ro g ra m m e e v e n b e fo re th e e x te n t o f th e n e e d w a s k n o w n . At t h a t tim e , p o te n t i a l l y s u i t a b l e a r e a s h a d n o t e v e n b e e n lo o k e d a t . In m a rk e d c o n t r a s t to m a n a g e m e n t a g re e m e n ts fo r S S S ls, w h e re g o v e rn m e n t h a s a c c e p te d th e f i n a n c i a l im p lic a tio n s o f i t s l e g i s l a t i o n , a t i g h t f i n a n c i a l r e i n h a s b e e n p la c e d u p o n th e ESA p ro g ra m m e . The schem e h a s b e e n d e s ig n e d to f i t th e b u d g e t , r a t h e r t h a n v ic e v e r s a . H ad th e C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission b e e n a f f o r d e d th e p i v o t a l p o s itio n in ESAs t h a t NCC h a s w ith r e s p e c t to S S S ls, a more r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h to th e p ro b le m w o u ld h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e . P r i o r i t i e s c o u ld h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y th e C o u n tr y s id e C om m ission, in c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith th e o th e r s t a t u t o r y o r g a n i s a t i o n s a s r e q u i r e d u n d e r th e A g r ic u ltu r e A ct, a n d a r o l l i n g p ro g ra m m e , c o m m e n su ra te w ith p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e l i k e l y f u n d i n g , d e v i s e d . I n d e e d , in r e f u s i n g to t a i l o r i t s re c o m m e n d a tio n s to th e £6 m illio n b u d g e t, th e C o u n try s id e C om m ission a p p e a r e d u n w illin g to e n d o rs e a to k e n g e s t u r e . G iven th e s e v e r i t y of th e p ro b le m , t h i s m e a g re b u d g e t a p p e a r e d a n u n r e a l i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t .
The M i n i s t e r 's s ta te m e n t d o u b lin g th e a v a i l a b l e f u n d s fo r ESAs c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s th e r e a l i t y of a r o l l i n g p ro g ra m m e . ESAs a r e l i k e l y to becom e a n im p o r ta n t e le m e n t i n s t r i k i n g a new b a l a n c e b e tw e e n food p r o d u c tio n a n d l a n d s c a p e m a n a g e m e n t i n c e r t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s . I f c o n tr o l r e s t e d w ith th e C o u n tr y s id e Commis
s io n , p la n n e d e x p a n s io n of th e ESA p ro g ra m m e c o u ld b e p la c e d on a b a s i s m ore r a t i o n a l t h a n th e n e e d fo r a p r e - e m p tiv e move to a v o id a v o te of no c o n fid e n c e in th e M in is te r o f A g r ic u ltu r e b y th e N a tio n a l F a rm e rs U n io n , a s o c c u r r e d on 9 F e b r u a r y 1987.
6 . CONCLUSION
The i s s u e o f who c o n tr o ls th e c o u n t r y s i d e , h o w e v e r, i s m uch b i g g e r t h a n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f ESAs. In th e p a s t , th e D e p a rtm e n t o f th e E n v iro n m e n t h a s b e e n q u ie s c e n t in i t s d e a l i n g s w ith MAFF. 26 The m a in te n e t o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l r e g u l a t i o n , th e " p o l l u t e r p a y s p r i n c i p l e " , fo r e x a m p le , i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e to a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s deem ed a c c e p ta b le b y MAFF. T h a t e v e n a t C a b in e t l e v e l , th e D e p a rtm e n t of th e E n v iro n m e n t a n d th e M in is try of A g r i c u l t u r e now b a t t l e o v e r th e f u t u r e o f th e c o u n tr y s id e i s w id e ly k n o w n . ESA is b u t one i s s u e in v o lv e d . F o r e x a m p le , P e g g y F e n n e r , th e J u n io r A g r ic u ltu r e M in is te r , m oved to r e j e c t one of th e o p tio n s a v a i l a b l e to th e N itr a te C o o r d in a tio n G roup ( i n v e s t i g a t i n g n i t r a t e c o n ta m in a tio n of d r i n k i n g w a t e r ) , n a m e ly , r e s t r i c t i o n s on f e r t i l i z e r u se b y m e an s of t a x e s o r q u o t a s , a f u l l s ix m o n th s b e fo re i t s r e p o r t w a s r e l e a s e d fo r p u b l i c a t i o n . 27
A d m in is tr a tio n of th e ESA i n i t s in f a n c y a p p e a r s to b e on e p lo y t h a t MAFF h a s a d o p te d i n o r d e r to r e t a i n i t s in f l u e n c e o v e r r u r a l e x p e n d i t u r e . W ithout t h i s m ove, th e r e a lig n m e n t o f food p r o d u c tio n a n d l a n d s c a p e m a n a g e m e n t c o u ld h a v e e ro d e d M A FF's b u d g e t a n d , h e n c e , t h r e a t e n e d th e p o w e r of th e o r g a n i s a t i o n w h ic h t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a s h a d few c r e d i b l e o p p o n e n ts n e i t h e r in n o r o u t of g o v e rn m e n t. E n v iro n m e n ta l c o n c e r n s m ay y e t v ie w th e f a i l u r e to c a p t u r e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e ESA b u d g e t a s a s i g n i f i c a n t d e f e a t w ith im p o r ta n t lo n g -te rm i m p l i c a t i o n s . MAFF h a s e f f e c t iv e ly m oved in to a n a r e a w h e re i t h a s l i t t e c o m p e ta n c e o r c r e d i b i l i t y . In f a c t , i t s e x p e r ie n c e r u n s d i a m e t r i c a l l y c o u n te r to th e o b je c t iv e s i t now s e e k s to e m b ra c e .
NOTES
1. C o u n c il of th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ities (1 9 7 5 ). D ir e c tiv e on m o u n ta in a n d h i l l fa r m in g in c e r t a i n le s s f a v o u r e d a r e a s
(7 5 /2 6 8 /E E C ). O ffic ia l J o u r n a l , 18, L128, 1 9 .5 .7 5 , p p . 231-266.
2. C o u n c il o f th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ities (1 9 7 2 ). D ire c tiv e on th e m o d e rn iz a tio n of fa rm s (7 2 /1 5 9 /E E C ). O f f ic ia l J o u r n a l , 15, L96, 2 3 .4 .7 2 , p p . 1 -8 .
3. C o u n c il o f th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ities (1 9 7 2 ). D ir e c tiv e on m e a s u re s to e n c o u r a g e c e s s a tio n of f a r m in g a n d r e a l l o c a t i o n o f th e a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a fo r th e p u r p o s e s o f s t r u c t u r a l im p ro v e m e n t
(7 2 /1 6 0 /E E C ). O f f ic ia l J o u r n a l , 15, L96, 2 3 .4 .7 2 , p p . 9 -1 4 . 4. C o u n c il of
p r o v is io n of o c c u p a tio n a l
(7 2 /1 6 1 /E E C ).
th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ities (1 9 7 2 ). D ir e c tiv e on th e so cio -ec o n o m ic g u id a n c e fo r th e a c q u i s i t i o n of s k i l l s b y p e r s o n s e n g a g e d in a g r i c u l t u r e O f f ic ia l J o u r n a l , 15, L96, 2 3 .4 .7 2 , p p . 15-20.
5. B a id o c k , D. (1 9 8 5 ). F a rm s t r u c t u r e s in E u ro p e : th e B r itis h i n i t i a t i v e . E c o s , 6. ( 3 ) , p p . 2 -6 .
6. P r i t c h a r d , D. E. (1 9 8 5 ). B r i t a i n 's Im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e EEC B ird s D i r e c t i v e . P a p e r d e liv e r e d a t th e BANC C o n fe re n c e , L o n d o n , S e p te m b e r 1985.
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W a th e rn , P . , Y o u n g , S. N ., B row n, I . W ., a n d R o b e r ts , D. A.
(1 9 8 7 ). UK i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d im p le m e n ta tio n of th e EEC s h e l l f i s h d i r e c t i v e . E n v ir o n m e n ta l M a n a g e m e n t, 11, p p . 7-12
W a th e rn , P . ( in p r e s s ) . UK r e s p o n s e s to th e EC EIA d i r e c t i v e . E n v iro n m e n ta l Im p a c t A sse ssm e n t R ev iew .
7. V an d e r P i a s , L. (1 9 8 5 ). E u r o p e a n r u r a l r i d e s . L a n d s c a p e R e s e a r c h , 10 ( 2 ) , p p . 6 -1 0 .
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9 . W a th e rn , P . , e t a l . (1 9 8 6 ), o p . c i t . , r e f . 6.
10. M a th ia s , J . R. (1 9 8 3 ). P a p e r to th e P r in c e o f W ales Com m ittee E n v ir o n m e n ta l R e s e a rc h G ro u p S e m in a r on th e L ess F a v o u re d A re a s D ir e c tiv e , G re g y n o g P o w y s, W ales, May 1983.
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13. P o r c h e s te r (1 9 7 7 ). A S tu d y o f E xm oor. HMSO, L o n d o n . 14. B a id o c k , D. (1 9 8 6 ), o p . c i t . , r e f . 12.
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23. P e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n (n am e w i t h h e l d ) .
24. J o in t W orking P a r t y (1 9 8 6 ), o p . c i t . , r e f . 19.
25- A dam s, W. M. (1 9 8 4 ). Im p le m e n tin g th e A c t. B r itis h A s s o c ia tio n o f N a tu re C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s , L o n d o n .
F r ie n d s of th e E a r th (1 9 8 4 ). SSSIs 1984: th e F a i l u r e of th e W ild life a n d C o u n try s id e A c t. F r i e n d s of th e E a r t h , L o n d o n .
26. B a id o c k , D. a n d W a th e rn , P . (1 9 8 6 ). A g r ic u ltu r e a n d E n v iro n m e n ta l P o lic y in th e UK. IIUG , B e r lin ( u n p u b li s h e d m a n u s c r i p t ) .
27. A non. (1 9 8 6 ). A g r i c u l t u r e m i n i s t e r 's p r e - e m p tiv e s t r i k e on n i t r a t e s . ENDS, 137, p p . 6 -7 .
