The General Condition of Pastoralists

i. Some Characteristics of Major Pastoral Areas. Ethiopia with a population of 77 million is the second most populous country in Sub-Saharan Africa. The overwhelming majority of the population are rural,⁷⁷ most of which live in the highlands. The concentration of population reflects the relationship between physiography, climate, economy and population (Hogg, 1997a:5). While the highlands have a relatively high density, the lowlands are sparsely populated and are characterized by poor infrastructure and communication, highly variable and uncertain rainfall. Some characteristics of the main pastoral areas are given in table 3.1 below.

76 Some authors (Blaikie et al., 2004:120) noted that ‘coping is managing under stress, but it is in essence a strategy reactive to events beyond the immediate control of the individual, household, or community. As circumstances deteriorate, these may prove insufficient. For instance in famine context, informal support systems among the Dinka communities of south-Sudan were well developed, but they fell apart under extreme pressure.

They could not resist the cumulative onslaught over a long period of war, drought, and enslavement and displacement.

77 The agricultural labour force is 81% (FAO statistics and World Bank, 2006).

Table 3.1 Characteristics of the Main Pastoral Areas

Source: Pastoral Area Development: Issues Paper and Project Proposal, Mission Report (World Bank, 2001:2).

* Area shown under Borana is only for the six pastoral Woredas (districts).

Aridity occurs where the rainfall is insufficient to replenish the loss of moisture - less than 500 mm a year makes for aridity, and 500 mm to 750 mm for semi-aridity. According to this criterion more than half of Ethiopia (i.e. 52%) is arid (Markakis, 2004)⁷⁸. The physical environment that major pastoral groups inhabit mainly belongs to the arid and semi-arid zones. These arid and semi-arid environments are characterized by extreme variability and unreliability of rainfall both between different years and between different places in the same year (Ali, 1996:95; Ahmed et al., 2002: 4).

The Borana pastoralists of Ethiopia inhibit the Borana Administrative Zone (in the Oromiya Region) that consists of 12 Woredas, six of which (Liben, Yabello, Dire, Arero, Teltele and Moyalai) are situated in areas below 1500 masl.⁷⁹ Landuse in this area is dominated by pastoral and agro-pastoral productions. The other six Woredas of the Zone are situated in the mid-highlands with a dry sub-humid climate.⁸⁰ The residents of two Woredas (Bore and Uraga) are fully sedentary and engage in cash crop production (World Bank, 2001:2).

Somali pastoralists of Ethiopia reside in the Somali National Regional State. Desert and semi-desert constitute 80% of the region. The Somalis practice mainly pastoralism, and some combine herding and cultivation⁸¹. The Afar inhabit the north-eastern part of Ethiopia. They practice pastoralism (i.e. 90%) and agro-pastoralism (10%) (World Bank, 2001:3). Other small groups of pastoralists inhabit in the southern and south-western parts of the country.

As stated above pastoral areas are characterized by extreme variability and unreliability of rainfall. As a result rainfed agriculture is hardly possible in most pastoral areas (Ali, 1996:195). Though some pastoral areas may provide some options to produce certain crop species in good years, they are generally marginal to intensive crop cultivation (Markakis, 2004:1; Ahmed et al., 2002: 4). Therefore, livestock rearing is the major economic activity among pastoralists in the Ethiopian lowlands.

Yet the marginal nature of the physical environment still imposes certain constraints to livestock production too. Moreover, pastoral areas are characterized by the scarcity and

78 The total land area of the country is 1,104,300 km².

79 It is arid and semi-arid with roughly <200mm and 200-800 mm respectively.

80 It is roughly with 800-1200 mm.

81 Though it is difficult to gauge the extent of sedenterization via cultivation, the government statement claims that 30% of the Somalis and 20% of the Afar are already settled (Markakis, 2004:12).

seasonal variability of vegetation, and vulnerability to recurrent drought (Ali, 1996:95;

Ahmed et al., 2002: 4). As it is in other countries of the Horn of Africa, drought is recurrent in Ethiopia, and usually accompanied by food crisis or famine (see map 1 for drought probability in Ethiopia).

Map 1 Probability of Drought in Ethiopia

ii. Livestock Population and its Contribution. Ethiopia has more domesticated animals than other countries in Africa (World Bank, 2001). Pastoral groups manage some 40% of the national cattle herd, one quarter of the sheep, three quarter of goats and nearly all the camels (Ahmed et al., 2002:8). The total livestock population in pastoral areas is given in table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2 Livestock Population in Heads in the Lowlands/Pastoral Areas/ of Ethiopia No Pastoral region Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Equines

1 Afar 3,600,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 900,00 200,00

2 Oromiya (Borana) 1,400,000 1000,000 500,000 530,000 60,000 3 Oromiya (other zones)* 100,000 200,000 300,000 10,000 20,000

4 Somali 5,200,000 6,600,000 3,300,000 1,100,000 360,000

5 SNNP 450,000 340,000 500,000 1,000 40,000

6 Benishangul and Gambella 100,000 100,000 100,000 - 20,000

Total 10,850,000 10,240,000 7,700,000 2,541,000 700,000

Source: Sandford and Yohannes, 2000:3

* Karrayu and southern part of the Bale zone

The primary livelihood of the pastoral groups in Ethiopia is the management of livestock (cattle, goats, sheep and camels). Livestock are critical to the well-being of pastoral households and communities in terms of income, savings, food security, employment, etc.

Livestock also represent the means through which pastoral institutions, traditions and cultural

ties are assured and are the currency for building relationships (social capital) between families, groups and communities. Livestock inheritance, gifts, loans, etc are critical for social reproduction and maintenance of the social fabric of the pastoral communities or societies (Fekadu et al., 1984:64-65).

In addition to supporting pastoral households and communities, the pastoral sector has an important contribution to the Ethiopian economy contributing 20% of total GDP and 10% of export earnings since the year 2000 (Markakis, 2004:18). About 90% of livestock export of the country comes from these pastoral areas (Ahmed et al., 2002).

iii. Pastoral Groups and their Livelihoods. Pastoral and agro-pastoral communities constitute about 10-12% of the total population, and occupy 60% of the country’s land (Ahmed et al., 2002:8). Pastoralism is extensively practiced in the Somali and Afar regions and in the Borana Administrative Zone of the Oromiya Region. Pastoral groups are also found in areas of SNNP, Benishangul Gumuz and Gambella regions. The pastoral groups in Ethiopia are given in table 3.3 below.

Table 3-3 Pastoral Groups in Ethiopia by Geographical Location, Region and Ethnicity Geographical location and Region Ethnic groups

North-East (Afar, Oromiya and Somali Regions)

Afar, Somali, Argoba, Oromo.

South (Oromiya and Somali Regions) Oromo, Somali South-East (Somali Region) Somali

South-West (SNNP and Gambella Regions)

Dasenetch, Hamer, Mursi, Bodi, Bumie, Bena, Erbore, Tsemay, Nuer, Anuak, Ari, Bali, Dime, Nyangtom, Chai, Trima, Ruli, Tinshana Muguji.

West (Benishangul Gumuz Region) Komo, Shinasha, Gumuz, Benshangul

Source: Dawit Abebe (2000) cited in Ahmed et al., 2002: 8)

The main pastoral communities are Somali (53%), Afar (29%), and Borana (10%) living in the south-east, north-east, and southern parts of the country respectively. The balance (8%) are found in the Southern, Gambella and Benishangul regions (Hogg, 1997a; Coppock 1994 cited in Ahmed et al., 2002:8). (See map 2 for major pastoral areas in Ethiopia).

Map 2 Major pastoral areas in Ethiopia

Although the climatic conditions and hardship are nearly similar for the pastoral groups, people inhabiting these areas differ in their social structure, herd composition, coping strategies, and the extent of their orientation to the market (World Bank, 2001:2). The majority of the pastoral groups are engaged in extensive livestock herding. However, within and between each of these pastoral groups, there are different adaptive specializations depending on varying ecological, economic and cultural factors. The composition of herds varies from one group to another depending on the natural environment. The herd population usually consists of camels, cattle, goats and sheep. In some areas donkeys, horses and mules are reared. The Borana prefer to keep cattle. But currently they are increasingly participating in sheep, goat and camel production. Somalis have a higher production of camels in their herd mix and they also herd cattle, sheep and goats (World Bank, 2001:2). The Afar herd a mix of herds (cattle, camels, goats and sheep). In general some pastoral groups rely for subsistence primarily on livestock; others combine livestock production with other subsidiary activities such as cultivation, trade and wage employment.

iv. Relation between Pastoralism and Farming. The highland rural areas of Ethiopia are primarily crop-dependent. Extensive livestock herding is the primary activity in most lowland areas. In general terms, farming and extensive livestock herding form a continuum from

“pure” pastoralism to farming at the two extreme points (Hogg, 1997a). In this case Hogg states that “pastoral societies pursue multi-resource activities constantly shifting in response to changing circumstances” (Hogg, 1997a:5). This suggests peoples’ adaptation to the environment and changes in socio-economic and ecological environments. Markakis (2004:4) further states this situation in East Africa, which includes Ethiopia, in this manner: “Due to nature of land in East Africa, [….] people tilled the land where it was possible to do so and herded livestock where it was not, often managing to do a bit of both. By and large this is still the way things are done”.

In Ethiopia there are pastoral groups or households, especially from Borana, Somali and Afar who tend to combine herding with crop cultivation by themselves or in cooperation or through various resource use arrangements with sedentary cultivators. Pastoralists in the past have depended heavily on livestock and livestock products for their livelihoods. In recent decades, however, many pastoral households are gradually involved in practicing small-scale cereal cultivation to cope with crisis in their traditional mode of subsistence. Especially pastoral households or groups from Somali, Afar and Borana tend to take up crop cultivation.

They strive to combine herding with cultivation by themselves or through various arrangements (e.g. sharecropping, renting out land, mutual cooperation, and hired labour) with neighbouring sedentary cultivators. This practice has been observed between Karrayu and Afar pastoralists and between these groups and their neighbouring crop cultivators (Ayalew, 2000:332; Getachew, 2001a:107).

In the Somali Region, irrigated agriculture has been exercised along the Wabe-Shebelle, Genale and Dawa rivers. In Kelafo and Mustahil of the Somali Region, a form of agro-pastoralism well adapted to local conditions is being practiced (Mohammed, 2004:2). In relation to this some reports (e.g. Mohammed, 2004:2) indicated that the expansion of cropping in recent years competes in some sense with livestock husbandry. In recent years traditional bottomland grazing areas are used for growing maize and other crops. As a result, grazing resources are shrinking. In addition encroachment from non-pastoral groups into pastoral areas has increased. In Borena, for example, non-pastoral groups from other areas cultivate even the wet-season grazing areas. Consequently, livestock are forced to concentrate in a given area causing overgrazing, land degradation, and change in vegetation cover from grassland to woody vegetation (Mohammed, 2004:2).

In general pastoral groups are taking up cultivation either as secondary activity or as coping mechanism to crisis in their traditional mode of subsistence. Although lowland areas are often perceived as arid regions with no potential for (rain-fed) agriculture, in many pastoral frontiers, herders coexist with farmers, and are often cultivating crops themselves. Therefore, pastoral areas support a diversity of livestock-based, crop-based, and mixed (agro-pastoral) livelihood systems.

3.3.2. Socio-Political Processes and Previous Development Approaches to Pastoralism