Bram de Klerck
Introduction
MaryMagdalene’sconversiontoChristianitymusthavebeenaturning-point
ofparamountimportanceinherlife.Accordingtomanyalegendarysource,
thesainthadbeennotoriousforostentatiouslyenjoyingheryouth,herphysi-calbeautyandhermaterialwealth.Atsomepoint,however,shemusthavefelt
theurgetochangeherways,tofollowJesusChristandtodedicateherselftohis
teaching.Thefirstmanifestationofthisisoftenconsideredtohavebeenher
humbleandreveringbehaviourtowardsChristwhenhestayedinthehouseof
aPhariseecalledSimon,asdescribedintheGospelaccordingtoSt.Luke.A
woman,intheWesterntraditioncommonlyidentifiedwiththeMagdalene,
enteredthehouse,startedweepingremorsefullyoverChrist’sfeet,andsubse-quentlydriedthemwithherownhair,kissedthemandanointedthem.Ifthis
nameless woman should indeed be identified with Mary Magdalene, this
wouldimplythatthelatter’sactualconversionhadalreadyoccurredbeforethe
episodeinthePharisee’shouse.Surprisingly,thiscrucialmomentinMary’slife
hasrarelybeennarratedintextualsources,norhasitveryoftenbeendepicted
inthevisualarts
Inthepresentcontribution,Iwillexploretherelationshipbetweentextand
image,inrelationtotheportrayalofMaryMagdaleneintheLateMiddleAges
andtheRenaissanceintheWesternWorld,andmorespecificallywithregards
toportrayalsofherconversion.Iwillbrieflyintroducethecomplexlegendary
personaoftheMagdaleneasitemergesfrombiblicaltexts,aswellaslaterleg-ends.ThereceptionofspecificaspectsoftheMagdalene’slegendinbothhigh
andlowculturebecomesclearthroughthepresentationofherconversionin
bothpopulartheatreandmoreelitistmanifestationsinthevisualarts.
© BramdeKlerck,2015 | doi10.1163/9789004270848_011
ThisisanopenaccesschapterdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution-Noncommercial3.0Unported(CC-BY-NC3.0)License.
Mary Magdalene: Written and Visual Evidence
Itisawell-knownfactthatintheWesterntraditionMaryMagdaleneasa‘liter-ary’characteristheresultofafusionofseveralbiblicalandlegendaryfigures.1
TheevangelistLukementionsa‘Mary,calledMagdalene,outofwhomwent
sevendevils’,asoneofthewomeninChrist’scompany,who‘hadbeenhealed
ofevilspiritsandinfirmities’(Luke8:2).Marksayssomethingsimilar:‘Now
whenJesuswasrisenearlythefirstdayoftheweek,heappearedfirsttoMary
Magdalene,outofwhomhehadcastsevendevils’(Mark16:9).Otherbiblical
exampleswhichexplicitlymentionMaryMagdalenetellofherpresenceat
Christ’scrucifixion(Matthew27:56,Mark15:40,John19:25).TheEvangelist
JohndescribesMary’spresenceatChrist’sburial,andherattemptstoanoint
thelatter’sbodyonEasterMorning,onlytofindthetombempty(20:1–18).
Matthew, Mark and John, furthermore, describe her as the first witness to
Christ’sresurrection(Matthew28:9,Mark16:9,John20:16–17).
TwootherwomendescribedintheBiblehavebeenassociatedwithMary
Magdalene.One,mentionedabove,istheanonymouspenitentinthehouseof
SimonthePharisee(Luke7:36–39).TheotherisMary,thesisterofMartha
whoreceivedJesusintheirhouseinthetownofBethanyandpreparedameal
forhim(Luke10:38–42).TheirbrotherwasLazarus,amanwholaterwouldbe
raisedfromthedeadbyChrist(John11:1–44).Probablyreferringtothewoman
inthehouseofthePharisee,Johnsaysthat‘itwasthatMarywhichanointed
theLordwithointment,andwipedhisfeetwithherhair’(11:1–2).Thishypo- theticalidentificationwouldlaterbecamecommonplaceintheRomanCatho-lictradition.InahomilyonLuke’spassage(Hom.xxxiii),thePopeandChurch
Father,GregorytheGreat,explicitlypresentsthesethreewomenasbeingone
andthesameperson,bystatingthat‘shewhomLukecallsthesinfulwoman,
whomJohncallsMary[ofBethany],webelievetobetheMaryfromwhom
sevendevilswereejectedaccordingtoMark’.2
AftertheeventsofChrist’sdeath,burialandresurrection,MaryMagdalene
vanishesfromthecanonicalbooks.However,apocryphalsourcesdatingfrom
thefirsttwoorthreecenturiesCE,suchastheso-called‘GospelofPhilip’and
the‘GospelofMary’,stressotherbiographicalaspectssuchasthereciprocal
affection,orindeedphysicalattractionbetweenMaryandJesus.Recently,this
fascinatinginformationhasmetwithaconsiderableresponse,especiallyin
1 TheliteratureonMaryMagdaleneisabundant.See,e.g.:Haskins(1993),Jansen(1999),Ricci,
Marin(2006).
2 Homiliaxxxiii:GregorytheGreat(1999),p.288–298,EnglishquotationafterHaskins1993,
p.96.
literaryfiction,suchasinDanBrown’snotoriousDa Vinci Code (firstpublished
in2003).Buttheseapocryphaltextswereunknownoratleastnottakenseri-ouslybyecclesiasticalauthoritiesintheLateMiddleAgesandRenaissance;
theywererediscoveredonlyinthelatenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies
andsodonotconcernushere.3
Hagiographicalandtheologicalliterature,however,hascontributedmuch
tofurthershapingtheMagdalene’slegendarypersonaintheLateMiddleAges
and the Early Modern period.The most detailed and best known of these
sourcesisundoubtedlythecompendiumofsaints’livesentitledLegenda aurea
(‘Golden Legend’), written by the Dominican friar Jacobus de Voragine in
around1260.4 ItdescribesMaryasamemberofaveryaffluentfamily,which
ownedpiecesoflandandevenentiretowns.OneofthesewasMagdalaon
LakeTiberias,henceMary’ssurname‘ofMagdala’,or‘Magdalena’.Yet,thethir-teenth-centuryauthorhassurprisinglylittletosayaboutMary’slifebeforeshe
becameafollowerofJesus.Rather,heprovidesalengthydescriptionofthe
eventsofthelatterphasesofherlifeafterChrist’sdeathandresurrection,es-peciallyherstayinSouthernFrance,aftershehadbeenexpelledfromJudea.
AccordingtoVoragine,MaryconvertedthepaganslivinginMarseille,aswell
astheirprefect,toChristianity,andsubsequentlyspentthelastyearsofherlife
inasceticsolitudeinthewildernessofProvence.Aftershehaddiedthere,she
wasburiedinSt.Maximin’schurchinAix-en-Provence.Possiblyasearlyas771,
herremainsweretranslatedtothenewlybuiltchurchofSainte-Marie-Made- leineinVézelayinBurgundy,whereastowardstheendofthefourteenthcen-tury,venerationfortheMagdalenereceivedanewimpetusinthesouthof
France,inSaint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Beaume.
On the basis of legends likeVoragine’s, Mary Magdalene has sometimes
beendescribedasacourtesanorevenanoutrightprostitute.Thesequalifica-tionsarearesultofthehypotheticalidentificationoftheMagdalenewiththe
sinnerLukementionsinthehouseofthePharisee.TheChurchFatherGregory,
inthesermonjustquoted,afterhavingsaidthat,tohim,theMagdalenewas
identicalwiththeMarypossessedbysevendevils,continues:‘Andwhatdid
thesesevendevilssignify,ifnotallthevices?[…]Itisclear,brothers,thatthe
womanpreviouslyusedtheunguenttoperfumeherfleshinforbiddenacts.’5
3 FragmentsoftheGospel of Marywerediscoveredin1896;TheGospel of Philip,alongwithsome
otherimportantEarlyChristianwritings,in1945.
4 JacobusdeVoragine(1993),pp.374–384.
5 Homiliaxxxiii:GregorytheGreat(1999),p.288–298,EnglishquotationafterHaskins(1993),
p.96.
TheemphasistheRomanCatholicChurchtraditionallyputonMary’ssinful
origins,aswellasherpenanceandvirtuouslaterlifecontrastingwiththem,
havebeenreasontopresentherasexemplaryofthesalutaryeffectsofrepen-tance.Shebecameapatronsainttoconvertsofallkinds,andespecially‘fallen
women’andprostitutes,andthecentresfoundedtotheirrelief.Itwasonlyin
thetwentiethcenturythattheChurchimplicitlydissociateditselffromthese
views.Inthe1969editionoftheRoman Missaltheknotofthefiguresofthe
Magdalene,MaryofBethanyandtheanonymoussinnerrespectively,wasfi- nallydisentangled.IntheOrthodoxtradition,however,thisdistinctionhasal-ways remained doctrinal: the Eastern Church has never considered Mary
Magdaleneotherthanasanexampleofvirtue,evenbeforeherconversion.6
AlsoinmanyProtestantChurchesaswellasintheChurchofEngland,the
Magdalenewasnotinthefirstplaceregardedasasinner,butratherasanex-emplarydiscipleofJesus,andsometimesevenashisapostle.Thefactthattwo
prestigiousEnglishacademiccolleges,inOxfordandCambridgerespectively,
have been dedicated to the saint, undoubtedly has to do with this English
variantofthevenerationfortheMagdalene.
ItcanhardlycomeasasurprisethatworksofvisualartinWesternEurope
reflecttheimageofMaryMagdaleneasitarisesfromthewrittensources.7
Time and again, the saint has been portrayed in paintings and sculptures,
drawings,andprints:nowastheyoungandelegant,butsinfulladysheonce
was,nowasaconvert,andnowasthehaggardasceticshebecametowardsthe
endofherlife.Ingeneral,shecaneasilyberecognizedbyherlong,oftenred- dishhair,whichhadplayedsuchanimportantpartintheepisodeinthePhar-isee’shouse.Almostalwayssheisholdinganointmentjarofsomesort,in
referencetotheanointmentofChrist’sfeet,aswellastohereffortstoanoint
thelatter’sbodyafterthecrucifixion.Clearly,theconfusionovertheMagda-lene’sidentitypersistsinvisualform.Indeed,inthearts,yetanothercaseof
mistakenidentitywasaddedtotheothers.IndepictionsoftheMagdaleneas
ananchoriteinthewilderness,herappearanceoftenseemstobeborrowed
fromthatofanEarlyChristianhermitsaintgoingbythenameofMariaAegyp-tiaca.Thisfourth-orfifth-century‘MaryofEgypt’wasknowntohavefollowed
aninsatiablecarnallustforseventeenyearsbeforesherepented,uponlooking
ataniconoftheHolyVirgininJerusalem.Afterthisshedecidedtogiveupher
vilewaysandtowithdrawinthedeserttoliveanasceticlifeinsolitude.The
6 Accordingtothistradition,shewouldhavetravellednottoFrance,buttoEphesusanddied
there.
7 ForgeneralstudiesontheiconographyofMaryMagdaleneandherlegend,seee.g.Kirschbaum
(1968–1976)vol.7,516–541,Ingenhoff-Dannhäuser(1984),Rafanelli(2004).
parallelswiththeMagdalene’sconversionandsubsequentconductareevi-dent,asis,inimagesofthesaint,theemphasisonherlonghair.Whereas,for
instance,theGolden LegendhasitthatMaryofEgyptlivedinthedesert,‘na-ked,thebodyblackenedandburnedbythefierysun’,8iniconographysheis
alwaysdepictedcoveringhernuditywithherownlonghair.Sincethethir- teenthcenturyandespeciallyinItaly,theimageofanemaciated,nakedwom-ancoveringherselfwithherlonghairhasoftenbeenusedindepictionsofthe
Magdaleneaswell.
NarrativescenestakenfromtheMagdalene’slegendhave,sincetheearly
Middle Ages, also been highly popular. Innumerable are the depictions of,
amongothers,MaryMagdaleneinthehouseofthePharisee.Otherexamples
includetheepisodeofherpresenceatChrist’scrucifixionandthesubsequent
lamentationoverhisdeadbody,aswellasthestoryofherencounteronEaster
morningwiththerisenChrist,commonlyknownasNoli me tangere.
Yetmirroringmosthagiographicalliterature,thethemeofMary’sconver-sion–howevercruciallyimportantitisfortheunderstandingofherprogress
–israrelynarratedinthevisualarts.Sometimesitishintedatinanallegorical
way.Inthesecases,thesaintisusuallyshowninsplendidattire,butalsoshed-ding tears or close to doing so. She lets down her hair and symbolically
disposesofherrichesbyputtingasideherjewellery.Instancesofthisicon- ographicalformula,whichdevelopedinfullonlyduringtheCounterReforma-tionclimateofthelatesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,includefamous
worksbyCaravaggio(Rome,GalleriaDoriaPamphilij,ca.1596,Figure9.1),and
CharlesleBrun(Paris,MuséeduLouvre,1655).Thosefewsceneswhichdonar-ratetheconversionarefoundsomewhatearlier,bothinNorthernEuropeand
Italyand,judgingfromthefewexamplesthathavecomedowntous,only
withintherelativelylimitedtime-spanofthreequartersofacenturyfromap-proximately1490to1565.
The Magdalene’s Conversion in Sacred Drama
ImagesdepictinganarrativesceneofMaryMagdalene’sconversionseemto
havebeenbasedprimarilyononeparticularsetofsources.For,asweshallsee,
theyalmostexclusivelyshowsomevariantofastorywhichtellsofthesinful
MarylisteningtoChristdeliveringasermon,whichinturninducedherto
8 JacobusdeVoragine(1993),pp.227–229.
repent.ThisstoryhasbeenrepeatedmanytimesinaccountsfromLateMedi-aevalandEarlyModernsacreddrama.9
9 AnotableexceptionisanaccountofthestoryinPietroAretino’stractLa humanità di Christo,firstpublishedin1535.Thistextmayhavebeenthesourceforthedepictionofthe
themeinapaintingofca.1548(nowinLondon,NationalGallery),bytheVenetianpainter
Figure9.1 Caravaggio, ThepenitentMaryMagdalene, canvas, c. 1596, Rome, Galleria Doria Pamphilij. CentrumvoorKunsthistorischeDocumentatie,
RadboudUniversityNijmegen.
BeingoneoftheprotagonistsintheeventssurroundingChrist’sdeathand
resurrection,theMagdaleneplaysamajorroleinEasterplaysfromasearlyas
thetwelfthcenturyonwards.10Inadditioninlaterversionsofthese,thestory
ofMary’sconversionissometimesrecountedatlengthandindetail.Generally
thesettingisBethany,anditisassumedthatthebiblicalMarywhoislivingin
thattownisidenticaltotheMagdalene.Hersister,Martha,andsometimesalso
thelatter’sservant,Marcella,takepainstopersuadeMarytogoandattendthe
sermonChristisabouttodeliver.Thoughreluctantatfirst,theMagdalenein
theendgivesin,inkeeping(itseems)withhersupposedpredilectionformate-rialwealthandphysicalbeauty,sincesheisattractedtotheideaofmakingthe
acquaintanceoftheeloquentandfine-lookingnewcomer.
PlaysrecountingtheepisodeofMary’sconversionappeartohavecomeinto
beinginmidfourteenth-centuryGermany,withscoresofversionsandvariants
followingthereafteralloverEurope.11Withoutadoubtonlypartofthisnum-berhavesurvivedinmanuscriptorprint.Ofthetextswhichhavecomedown
tous,awell-knownexampleistheFrenchMystère de la passion,writtenby
JeanMichelinthesecondhalfofthefifteenthcentury.12Thisplaytellsofthe
Magdalenewho,havingjustheardthatJesusisthe‘mosthandsomemaninthe
world’andapparentlydesiringtoseducehim,makesherwaytothetempleto
seeandhearhimpreach.Miraculously,sheconvertsonthespotandfromthat
timeonsheisafollowerofChrist.InItaly,quiteanumberofsacreddramas
(rappresentazioniinItalian)werepublishedduringthesixteenthcentury.For
instance,atextentitledRappresentatione di un miracolo di Santa Maria Mad-dalena wasfirstpublishedinFlorencein1516andsawseveraleditionsduring
thelatterhalfofthesixteenthcentury.13AsecondItalianplay,explicitlyenti-tledRappresentazionedella conversione di Santa Maria Maddalena (‘Sacred
dramaoftheconversionofSaintMaryMagdalene’)wasfirstpublishedinFlor-encein1554.14
Asanexampleofthephrasing(inrhymingverse)andtoneofsuchtexts,we
shouldconsiderafewlinesfromtheRappresentazione di un miracolo of1516.
Tryingtotalkhersisterintogoingtothetemplethenextmorningtohear
Christspeak,Marthasays:
PaoloVeronese:seeRosand(2011),andseemstohavebeenimportantforseventeenth-centuryItalianpaintingaswell:Bull(2011).
10 Malvern(1975)100.
11 Kirschbaum’sLexikonmentionsaFrankfurtplayof1350:Kirschbaum(1968–1976)7,col.
12 533.Jodogne(1959).Seealso:Malvern(1975)100–113;andHaskins(1995)166–168.
13 SeeD’Ancona(1872)1,391–425.
14 D’Ancona(1872)255–302,Banfi(1997)187–268.
Dimioparlartantodilettarai, quantodrentoaltuocorsentissemai.
Iosochetidilettaedàpiacere
vedereungiovandigentilaspetto.
Equantoiopossointendereesapere
damoltiesservedutahaigrandiletto;
iotivo’far,sorellamia,vedere
unuomchemaivedestielpiùperfetto;
ditalbellezzaètantodecorato chepropriopareunangeloincarnato.
(Frommytalkingyouwillhaveasmuchdelight asyouhaveneverfeltinyourheart.
Iknowthatyoutakedelightandpleasure inseeingayoungmanwithaniceappearance.
And,asfarasIunderstandandknow, youtakegreatdelightinbeingseenbymany.
Mysister,Iwillshowyou
amanasperfectasyouwillneverhaveseen;
giftedwithsuchbeauty
thathereallyseemsanangelincarnate.)
MarthagoesonextollingChrist’sphysicalbeautyandeloquence,andindeed
succeedsinpersuadingMary.Butleavinghersisteraloneafterthedialogue,as
iftomakeexplicitnotonlytheessentialimproprietyofMary’sinitialinten-tion,butalsotojustifyherownargument,Marthamumblestoherself:
Benchésuodesideriononsiabuono, malascivoecarnalsecondoilsenso, perquestavoltaaltuttocertasono, chenonfaràpeccato,sebenpenso:
mutatoilcor,ricevràperdono
pergraziadelSignor,cheèbeneimmenso.
Quelche’ldolcemaestrom’hapromesso,
senzaalcundubiomisaràconcesso.
(Althoughherdesireisnotright
butlasciviousandcarnal,directedonlybythesenses, I,thistime,amentirelycertain
thatitwillnotdoanyharmifIthink:
onceshehaschangedherheart,shewillbeforgiven bythegraceoftheLord,whosemercyisimmense.
Thatwhichthesweetmasterhaspromised willwithoutanydoubtbegrantedtome.)
Infact,onthenextdayMaryaccompaniesMarthatotheplacewhereChrist
willdeliverhissermon.Hestartsspeakingaboutsinandpenance,afterwhich
themomentofMary’sconversionisdescribedinthefollowingstagedirection:
VoltasiCHRISTOversoMariaMaddalena,esegue,ementrechedicecon
efficacia,Maddalenacominciaapiangere,einclinailcapoingrembo,e
cuopresiconunosciugatoriodellaancillasua.
(ChristturnstoMaryMagdaleneandfollowsher,andwhilehespeaksin
well-chosenterms,theMagdalenestartstocryandlowersherheadtoher
lap,andcoversherselfwithherservant’stowel.)15
The Magdalene’s Conversion Depicted
Accordingtothetextsofthesepopularstageplays,theeventofMary’sconver-sionoccurredwhensheheardChristdeliveringasermon,sometimesspecified
asahomilyonpenance.Aswehavealsoseen,thereweremanydifferentver-sionsofthestory,probablyevenmuchmorethantheonesthathavecome
downtous,intextsthathavegoneastray,orperhapsalsoinplaysforwhichno
recordexists.Afewdepictionsofthestoryinpaintingsshowasimilarvariety.