and then studied English and German at the University of Bonn (1952-55). A docentship, obtained in 1962, led to his appointment to chairs of English Philology at Göttingen (1963-67) and Regensburg. Göller reigns supreme in practically all fields of EngLish literature, from Beowulf to present-day lyricists, and he has a stu- pendous number of books to his credit. - Born at Kel- heim in 1952, Jutta Göller studied English and History at Regensburg University (1972-78) and in Great Brit- ain (1974-75). She duly passed her first Staatsexamen, and obtained her Dr. phil. in English Literature in 1983.
J u t t a a n d K a r l H e i n z G ö l l e r University of Regensburg
Sylvia Plath's "Lyonnesse"
Wordplay and Mythical Meaning
1. History of the Text
A c c o r d i n g to the e d i t i o n o f her Collected Poems, S y l v i a P l a t h c o m p o s e d " L y o n - nesse" o n O c t o b e r 2 1 , 1 9 6 2 .1 O n the same day she also wrote " A m n e s i a c , " w h i c h precedes " L y o n n e s s e " i n the Collected Poems.2 However, the d a t a available o n the h i s t o r y o f c o m p o s i t i o n a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o f the p o e m make i t clear that S y l v i a P l a t h o r i g i n a l l y r e g a r d e d these t w o p o e m s as an integrated w h o l e w h i c h was to be p u b - l i s h e d u n d e r the t i t l e o f " A m n e s i a c , " w i t h the text of "Lyonnesse" c o m i n g first, followed by " A m n e s i a c . " O n O c t o b e r 30, 1962 she went to L o n d o n for a r e a d i n g o f her new p o e m s a n d a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h Peter O r r , recorded by the B r i t i s h C o u n c i l for the B B C .3 T h e p o e m she read there under the t i t l e o f " A m n e s i a c " c o n s i s t e d
1 S y l v i a P l a t h , Collected Poems, e d . T e d H u g h e s ( L o n d o n : F a b e r & F a b e r , 1981), p . 234.
2 I b i d . , p . 233.
3 A b r o a d c a s t i n g d a t e of the session is not g i v e n i n S t e p h e n T a b o r , Sylvia Plath: An Analytical Bibliography ( L o n d o n : M a n s e l l , 1987), p . 143.
B o t h i n t e r v i e w a n d r e a d i n g h a v e subsequently b e e n p u b l i s h e d i n p r i n t a n d o n r e c o r d , cf. P e t e r O r r , e d . , The Poet Speaks: Interviews with Contemporary Poets ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e &: K e g a n P a u l , 1966), " S y l v i a P l a t h , " p p . 167-72. F o r the records cf. S. T a b o r , p p . 144 f.
of " L y o n n e s s e " plus " A m n e s i a c , " the text of "Lyonnesse" differing s l i g h t l y from the version p u b l i s h e d i n the Collected Poems.4
D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , S y l v i a P l a t h h a d a "first r e a d i n g " c o n t r a c t w i t h The New Yorker, a s l i c k , glossy, weekly m a g a z i n e full of advertisements, c a r t o o n s , society a n d s p o r t s news, b u t also c o n t a i n i n g prose a n d p o e t r y by l e a d i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y a u t h o r s . T h e publishers p a i d her an a n n u a l s u m for the p r i v i l e g e o f h a v i n g a "first r e a d i n g " plus subsequent p u b l i s h i n g rights to her new p o e t r y . F r o m O c t o b e r 1962 to early F e b r u a r y 1963, she sent large g r o u p s of new p o e m s to
The New Yorker ( a m o n g t h e m p r e s u m a b l y " D a d d y " and " L a d y L a z a r u s " ) . M u c h to her distress she m a i n l y received rejections d u r i n g N o v e m b e r a n d December 1 9 6 2 .5 A t the e n d o f D e c e m b e r o n l y the second p a r t of the recorded version o f
" A m n e s i a c " ( i . e . the " A m n e s i a c " o f the Collected Poems) h a d been accepted.
T h e first p a r t ( i . e . "Lyonnesse") was rejected by the p u b l i s h e r o n the g r o u n d s t h a t there was no v i s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the second p a r t .6 O n A u g u s t 3, 1963, The New Yorker p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d under the title o f " A m n e s i a c " o n l y the text o f " A m n e s i a c " itself, together w i t h s i x other p o e m s by S y l v i a P l a t h . W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f " M y s t i c , " none o f t h e m d a t e d from her last p e r i o d o f w r i t i n g , n a m e l y a u t u m n / w i n t e r 1 9 6 2 / 6 3 .7 S y l v i a P l a t h h a d intended to i n c l u d e " A m n e s i a c " ( i . e .
" L y o n n e s s e " p l u s " A m n e s i a c " ) i n her collection of Ariel p o e m s assembled together before her d e a t h .8 T h e Ariel c o l l e c t i o n , however, p u b l i s h e d by T e d H u g h e s i n 1965,
4 C f . E i l e e n M . A i r d , " V a r i a n t s i n a T a p e R e c o r d i n g of F i f t e e n Poerns by S y l v i a P l a t h , " Notes and Queries, N S 19 (1972), 59-61. V a r i a n t s i n "Lyonnesse": line 3 "of" for "on," 1. 17 " G o l d "
for " C o l d . " A f t e r line 13 (line 2 of the fifth stanza) the r e c o r d e d version has two e x t r a lines:
T h e same shells o n the same m a n t e l , N e x t to the same p o t d o g , the same clock.
F o r the r e c o r d e d text of " A m n e s i a c , " differing also slightly f r o m the version of the Collected Poems, cf. A i r d , p . 61. L i n e 6, for instance, has "cocker" for "cooker." In a letter of O c t o b e r 4, 1988, to the a u t h o r s of this article T e d Hughes's sister, O l w y n H u g h e s , l i t e r a r y agent for the E s t a t e of S y l v i a P l a t h , states t h a t the correct version "is of course 'cocker', . . . 'cooker' b e i n g a t y p o w h i c h I will a g a i n ask the p u b l i s h e r s to correct i n future editions."
5 C f . S. T a b o r , p . 129, a n d L i n d a W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , Sylvia Plath: A Biography (1987;
L o n d o n : C h a t t o &: W i n d u s , 1988), p p . 12, 232 ff. D u e to various c i r c u m s t a n c e s there is as yet n o " a u t h o r i z e d " b i o g r a p h y of S y l v i a P l a t h . A c c o r d i n g to O l w y n H u g h e s in h e r l e t t e r to the a u t h o r s , the new b i o g r a p h y by A n n e S t e v e n s o n , Bitter Farne: A Life of Sylvia Plath ( L o n d o n : V i k i n g P r e s s , 1989), is "a b e t t e r b o o k i n every way."
6 C f . L . W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p . 232.
7 C f . The New Yorker, 39 ( A u g u s t 3, 1963), 28 f.
" A m n e s i a c " is o n p . 29 a n d h a s , as i n the version given b y E . M . A i r d (cf. n . 4), "cocker" for
"cooker" i n l i n e 6. T h e p o e m s The New Yorker h a d rejected, S y l v i a P l a t h p r e s u m a b l y sent to Encounter, a n E n g l i s h m o n t h l y c u l t u r a l a n d l i t e r a r y m a g a z i n e e d i t e d b y S t e p h e n S p e n d e r a n d M e l v i n J . L a s k y , where they were p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d i n the O c t o b e r 1963 issue, w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t o r y n o t e b y T e d H u g h e s s t a t i n g h e r d e a t h o n F e b r u a r y 11, 1963, a n d m a i n t a i n i n g i n a s h o r t a p p r a i s a l o f h e r p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t "inspite of the p r e v a i l i n g d o o m evident i n h e r p o e m s , it is i m p o s s i b l e t h a t anyone c o u l d have b e e n m o r e i n love w i t h life, or m o r e c a p a b l e of h a p p i n e s s , t h a n she was." C f . Encounter, 21, n o . 4 ( O c t o b e r 1963), 45.
8 F o r a t a b l e of contents of P l a t h ' s p l a n n e d Ariel collection cf. P l a t h ' s Collected Poems, p . 295.
c o n t a i n e d n e i t h e r text, perhaps because " A m n e s i a c " belonged to the " p e r s o n a l l y aggressive p o e m s . "9 T e d Hughes and S y l v i a P l a t h h a d separated d u r i n g the first h a l f of O c t o b e r 1962.
It was n o t before 1970 t h a t the first part of P l a t h ' s recorded " A m n e s i a c " was p u b l i s h e d u n d e r the t i t l e of "Lyonnesse" i n The Observer, M a y 10, 1970. In the f o l l o w i n g year, however, it became the t i t l e p o e m of a b e a u t i f u l l y edited selection of h i t h e r t o u n c o l l e c t e d P l a t h poems, p u b l i s h e d i n a l i m i t e d e d i t i o n by O l w y n H u g h e s ' s R a i n b o w P r e s s .1 0 F o r the wider r e a d i n g p u b l i c "Lyonnesse" b e c a m e accessible i n a B r i t i s h (1971) a n d an A m e r i c a n (1972) e d i t i o n of Winter Trees.
" A m n e s i a c , " however, the second part of P l a t h ' s recorded p o e m , was o m i t t e d f r o m the B r i t i s h e d i t i o n a n d p u b l i s h e d o n l y i n the A m e r i c a n one, for w h i c h the p u b l i s h e r s h a d requested more p o e m s .1 1 N o B r i t i s h p u b l i c a t i o n of " A m n e s i a c " is r e c o r d e d u n t i l 1981 i n the Collected Poems.
T h e q u e s t i o n arises as to whether it was l e g i t i m a t e to p u b l i s h "Lyonnesse"
a n d " A m n e s i a c " as two separate poems, a n d , so to speak, i n the w r o n g order of c o m p o s i t i o n ( " A m n e s i a c " preceding "Lyonnesse" i n the Collected Poems). A t e n t a t i v e answer to t h a t question m i g h t be: F i r s t l y , S y l v i a P l a t h often r e w o r k e d her p o e m s before p u b l i c a t i o n . T h u s , after O c t o b e r 30, 1962, she seems to have o m i t t e d the t w o a d d i t i o n a l lines i n s t a n z a 5 o f "Lyonnesse" that are c o n t a i n e d i n the r e c o r d e d t e x t .1 2 Secondly, she u s u a l l y c o m p l i e d w i t h p u b l i s h e r s ' suggestions.
It was The New Yorker w h i c h s p l i t up her " A m n e s i a c " i n its two halves, a n d w i t h g o o d reasons: T h e central image of the sunken city w h i c h d o m i n a t e s the first p a r t o f her p o e m ( i . e . " L y o n n e s s e " ) , is not resumed i n the second p a r t ( i . e .
" A m n e s i a c " ) ; a n d a l t h o u g h there are c e r t a i n connections between the two p a r t s (the t h e m e o f forgetfulness a n d the blue a n d green colours), they can h a r d l y be c a l l e d a t h e m a t i c u n i t . T h i r d l y , T e d Hughes's t e s t i m o n y has to be taken i n t o a c c o u n t . In several i n t r o d u c t i o n s to S y l v i a P l a t h ' s p o e t r y and prose he i n d i c a t e s his reasons for o m i t t i n g or d e l a y i n g p u b l i c a t i o n of the "personally aggressive"
texts, e . g . the p r o t e c t i o n o f the s u r v i v o r s o f the P l a t h - H u g h e s d r a m a , a n d this sounds a b s o l u t e l y c o n v i n c i n g . T h u s his procedure o f e n d i n g up w i t h two separate
9 S. P l a t h , Collected Poems, I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . 15. In her l e t t e r to the a u t h o r s (cf. n o t e 4) O . H u g h e s s t a t e s t h a t " A m n e s i a c " "plays u n d o u b t e d l y o n the m a r r i a g e break u p , " "but at a h e a v i l y d e c o r a t e d r e m o v e . " She t h i n k s that m a n y o t h e r p o e m s i n c l u d e d i n Ariel are m u c h m o r e
"personally aggressive." T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to O . H u g h e s , the reason for l e a v i n g out " A m n e s i a c "
was j u s t t h a t " w i t h the wide choice of p o e m s she [ S y l v i a P l a t h ] left u n p u b l i s h e d , this [ " A m n e - siac"] s e e m e d p e r h a p s m a r g i n a l i n theme a n d force."
10 C f . S. T a b o r , p p . 31-33. C o p i e s 1-100 c o n t a i n a facsimile of P l a t h ' s " A m n e s i a c . " T h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y c o p y is n o . 299; we have n o t seen the facsimile. "Lyonnesse" is the final p o e m (p. 31) of the s e l e c t i o n . T h e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n given there is 1963.
11 A f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n i n The New Yorker it h a d b e e n r e p u b l i s h e d i n the U S as a "printed offset f r o m t y p e s c r i p t " ( p r o b a b l y w i t h o u t c o p y r i g h t p e r m i s s i o n ) i n 1971 for a u n i v e r s i t y s e m i n a r . C f . S. T a b o r , p p . 24 f. O n l y 100 copies were p r i n t e d .
12 C f . n o t e 4.
texts seems a c c e p t a b l e o n the whole, a l t h o u g h P l a t h ' s o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n w o u l d have to be t a k e n i n t o account in an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of any of the two texts - a n d w o u l d at least have deserved a note i n the Collected Poems.
2. The Legend of Lyonesse and its Poetic Tradition
F o r the n o n - E n g l i s h reader the first difficulty w i t h " L y o n n e s s e "1 3 arises f r o m the p o e m ' s t i t l e a n d its first line. A C o n t i n e n t a l audience is especially b o u n d to t h i n k first o f the F r e n c h city of L y o n a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s , when the poet speaks o f " L y o n i a n s " l a t e r o n i n the p o e m (1. 11). T h e fact t h a t the French city is quite far away f r o m the sea, however, makes it clear t h a t this association w o u l d be t o t a l l y m i s l e a d i n g . Lyonesse is a k i n d of E n g l i s h (or rather C o r n i s h ) A t l a n t i s , a l e g e n d a r y l a n d a n d c i t y d r o w n e d by the sea off the coast of C o r n w a l l near L a n d ' s E n d . T a l e s a b o u t the sunken city are s t i l l very p o p u l a r i n E n g l a n d , a n d e s p e c i a l l y i n C o r n w a l l , as e x e m p l i f i e d by a collection of o l d stories a n d legends p u b l i s h e d b y the G r e a t W e s t e r n R a i l w a y C o m p a n y i n 1922, o b v i o u s l y w i t h the a i m o f g i v i n g t h e i r c u s t o m e r s a n i n c e n t i v e to t r a v e l to the sites of "legend l a n d " by r a i l w a y .1 4
T h e fictitious n a r r a t o r o f the tales is even called "Lyonesse" i n the t i t l e o f the b o o k l e t .1 5 T h e f o r e w o r d speculates u p o n the reasons w h y "the western p a r t s o f o u r c o u n t r y are richer i n legends t h a n any other p a r t " :
Perhaps this is because of the Celtic love of poetry and symbolism inherent in the blood of the people of the West . . .1 6
T h r o u g h T e d H u g h e s , w h o h a d s t u d i e d a n t h r o p o l o g y at C a m b r i d g e , S y l v i a P l a t h h a d d e v e l o p e d a keen interest i n folklore a n d m y t h o l o g y . T h u s she p r o b a b l y c a m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a lot of C e l t i c stories. T h e fact t h a t the Hughes f a m i l y was p a r t l y o f C e l t i c descent m a y have enhanced this interest. If she h a d not k n o w n the s t o r y o f " s u n k Lyonesse" before, she m i g h t have come across it when she v i s i t e d C o r n w a l l one m i d - O c t o b e r weekend i n 1962, i m m e d i a t e l y after s e p a r a t i n g f r o m T e d H u g h e s .1 7
13 T h e n a m e of t h a t l e g e n d a r y l a n d a n d city is u s u a l l y spelt w i t h o n l y one < n > . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , n o c o n s i s t e n t s p e l l i n g . F o r the h i s t o r y of the m y t h cf. A d r i a n D . H . B i v a r , "Lyonnesse:
T h e E v o l u t i o n of a F a b l e , " Modern Philology, 50 (1953), 162-70.
14 Legend Land: B e i n g a c o l l e c t i o n of s o m e O L D T A L E S t o l d i n those western p a r t s of B r i t a i n s e r v e d b y T H E G R E A T W E S T E R N R A I L W A Y , now r e t o l d by L Y O N E S S E . P u b l i s h e d b y T h e G r e a t W e s t e r n R a i l w a y ( F e l i x J . C . P o l e , G e n e r a l M a n a g e r ) ( L o n d o n : S p o t t i s w o o d e , B a l l a n t y n e
& C o . , 1922), v o l . II.
15 A c c o r d i n g t o the B r i t i s h L i b r a r y G e n e r a l C a t a l o g u e , L Y O N E S S E is the p s e u d o n y m of G e o r g e B a s i l B a r h a m .
16 Legend Land, p . 3.
17 She c a l l e d t h i s visit "her first i n d e p e n d e n t act" in a letter to her m o t h e r f r o m O c t o b e r 16, 1962. C f . S y l v i a P l a t h , Letters Home, C o r r e s p o n d e n c e 1950-63, ed. A u r e l i a S c h o b e r P l a t h (1975;
L o n d o n : F a b e r , 1978), p . 469.
S h e a n d the two c h i l d r e n h a d b e e n i n v i t e d to S t . Ives, C o r n w a l l , by a y o u n g writers' c o u p l e t h a t
L i k e t h e legend o f A t l a n t i s , the story o f " T h e L o s t L a n d o f Lyonesse" is s a i d t o be b a s e d u p o n h i s t o r i c a l fact:
There is a lot of truth mingled with the old legends that tell of T H E L O S T L A N D O F L Y O N E S S E , A F E R T I L E AND PROSPEROUS C O U N T R Y T H A T once extended west from Cornwall as far as the Scillies. According to those old traditions a vast number of villages and 140 churches where overwhelmed on that day (November 11, 1099) over eight hundred years ago, when the angry sea broke in and drowned fertile Lyonesse, and now, as an old rhyme has it:
Beneath Land's End and Scilly's rocks Sunk lies a town that ocean mocks.
To-day all that is left of the lost land are the beautiful Scilly Islands and the cluster of rocks between the Scillies and Land's End, known as the Seven Stones. These rocks are probably the last genuine bit of old Lyonesse, for their old Cornish name is Lethowsow, which was what the old Cornish called Lyonesse. Even now the local fishermen refer to the Seven Stones as "The City," for tradition tells that there was situated the principal town of the drowned land, and stories are told how on calm days ruined buildings may be discerned beneath the waters near Lethowsow, and that in times past fishing nets have brought up old weathered domestic utensils from the sea bottom near at h a n d .1 8
A p a r t f r o m the p o p u l a r tales s u r r o u n d i n g "sunk Lyonesse" there are also l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h i t . Lyonesse is A r t h u r i a n country. It gave i t s n a m e t o
" S i r T r i s t r a m o f L y o n e s , " w h o is s a i d to have been b o r n t h e r e .1 9 I n M a l o r y ' s Morte Darthur, G a r e t h sets o u t o n a quest for a l a d y i n distress, D a m e Lyonesse. H e succeeds i n r e s c u i n g her f r o m the R e d K n i g h t - w h o besieges her castle - a n d w i n s her h a n d .2 0 T h e i r love was so hot t h a t they w o u l d have c o n s u m m a t e d i t before t h e i r m a r r i a g e , h a d i t not been for the watchfulness o f Lyonesse's v i r t u o u s sister, D a m e L y n e t . T h u s , i n M a l o r y , the female figure o f Lyonesse is t h a t o f a love-seeking w o m a n , ready to surrender herself to a v a l i a n t l o r d .
In m o d e r n A r t h u r i a n l i t e r a t u r e the l a n d of Lyonesse becomes the place o f the d o w n f a l l o f the A r t h u r i a n w o r l d , the battlefield where the k n i g h t s of the R o u n d T a b l e , once u n i t e d by A r t h u r ' s d r e a m o f an ideal society, slaughter one a n o t h e r , w i t h t h e i r k i n g m o r t a l l y w o u n d e d a m o n g s t t h e m . T e n n y s o n ' s o p e n i n g lines o f h i s u n f i n i s h e d epic o n K i n g A r t h u r ' s d e a t h p r o b a b l y belong to the verses best k n o w n t o the o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n i n B r i t a i n :
h a d p r e v i o u s l y s t a y e d as guests at the H u g h e s ' house i n D e v o n , cf. P l a t h , Letters Home, p . 459.
T h e d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n b y P l a t h of the y o u n g w o m a n here identifies her as the m o d e l f o r t h e w o m a n i n P l a t h ' s p o e m "Lesbos" ( P l a t h , Collected Poems, p p . 227-30) w r i t t e n o n O c t o b e r 18, 1962. T h i s p o e m m e n t i o n s a visit to the b e a c h a n d its "silk grits" (p. 229); i n "Lyonnesse" she uses " c o l d grits" (1. 17). In the letter to h e r m o t h e r the p o e t speaks of "heavenly g o l d sands"
(p. 469).
18 Legend Land, p p . 29 f.
19 C f . N o r r i s J . L a c y , e d . , The Arthurian Encyclopedia (New Y o r k a n d L o n d o n : G a r l a n d , 1986), p p . 344 f.
20 S i r T h o m a s M a l o r y , Works, e d . E u g e n e V i n a v e r , 2 n d e d . ( O x f o r d , L o n d o n , a n d N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977), p p . 175-226.
So all day the noise of battle roll'd Among the mountains by the winter sea;
Until King Arthur's table man by man Had fallen in Lyonesse about their lord . . . 2 1
T h e r e are c e r t a i n reasons to believe t h a t S y l v i a P l a t h k n e w a l l of these p o p u l a r a n d l i t e r a r y associations connected w i t h the name of L y o n e s s e .2 2 F u r t h e r m o r e , the s e c o n d l i n e o f her p o e m testifies t h a t she also knew one o f the more recent poetic t r e a t m e n t s o f the legend o f the d r o w n e d city, W a l t e r de l a M a r e ' s p o e m " S u n k L y o n e s s e , " where the first line reads:
In sea-cold Lyonesse . . .2 3
W i t h the r e p e t i t i o n of the adjective, "sea-cold," i n her second line, P l a t h affirms de l a M a r e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y acknowledges ( " c e r t a i n l y " ) the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n :
Sea-cold, sea-cold it certainly is.
I n de l a M a r e ' s p o e m , the "foundered t o w n " (1. 4) becomes a s y m b o l of life t u r n e d i n t o a r t . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n petrifies life. T h u s , the N e r e i d s "make m i n s t r e l s y i n the streets" (1. 8) " w i t h motionless eyes at gaze" (1. 7). T h e (essentially r o m a n t i c ) j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f life a n d art is evoked at the end o f the p o e m , where " i n the sullen
c o u r t s o f sleep" (1. 16)
. . . marble flowers bloom for aye:
And - lapped by the moon-guiled tide - Mock their carver with heart of stone Caged in his stone-ribbed side.
(11. 17-20) T h e carver or s c u l p t o r has eternalized the beauty o f the flowers ( a n d p r o b a b l y h i m s e l f i n a s t a t u e o f his likeness), but his art has t r a n s f o r m e d t h e m (and h i m s e l f ) i n t o stone. T h e a r t i s t becomes a prisoner of his o w n art. T h e d i l e m m a of the a r t i s t is, then, t h a t life i m m o r t a l i z e d i n art is as r e m o t e f r o m "real life" as "sunk L y o n e s s e " f r o m life u p o n e a r t h .
21 A l f r e d L o r d T e n n y s o n , " M o r t e d ' A r t h u r , " i n Poetical Works ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954), p . 64, 11. 1-4.
22 S u s a n B a s s n e t , Sylvia Plath ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1987), whose s t u d y c o n t a i n s a short t r e a t m e n t of "Lyonnesse" (pp. 98 f.), was a m o n g the first to p o i n t to A r t h u r i a n references i n P l a t h ' s p o e t r y (cf. also p . 136). A n excellent s t u d y ( a n d b r e a k i n g away f r o m the h a b i t of i n t e r p r e t i n g P l a t h ' s p o e t r y i n solely "confessional" t e r m s ) of P l a t h ' s o w n m y t h o l o g y is J u d i t h K r o l l , Chapters in a Mythology: The Poetry of Sylvia Plath (New Y o r k a n d L o n d o n : H a r p e r Sz R o w , 1976).
23 W a l t e r de l a M a r e , " S u n k Lyonesse," i n The Penguin Book of Contemporary Verse, 1918-60, e d . K e n n e t h A l l o t t ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n , 1950; 2 n d e d . 1962, r p t . 1978), p . 57. T o o u r k n o w l e d g e , the reference g i v e n here to de l a M a r e ' s p o e m has n o t b e e n m e n t i o n e d before.
T h e s y m b o l i c use o f Lyonesse i n S y l v i a P l a t h ' s p o e m is a far c r y f r o m de l a M a r e ' s imagery, b u t w h a t m a y have a t t r a c t e d her to the late V i c t o r i a n p o e m is the c o o l , d i s t a n t voice o f the n a r r a t o r , c r e a t i n g an atmosphere of "green t r a n s l u c e n c y "
(1. 6) for the u n e a r t h l y w o r l d under the sea. C e r t a i n images seem to have s t u c k i n her m i n d , s u c h as the "eyes at gaze" (1. 7) a n d the image o f the s c u l p t o r "caged"
i n his o w n w o r k o f a r t (1. 20), f r o m w h i c h she took an i n s p i r e d leap i n her o w n p o e m .
3. Sylvia Plath's "Lyonnesse": Wordplay and Levels of Meaning
L y o n n e s s e2 4
No use whistling for Lyonnesse!
Sea-cold, sea-cold it certainly is.
3 Take a look at the white, high berg on his forehead - There's where it sunk.
The blue, green, 6 Gray, indeterminate gilt
Sea of his eyes washing over it And a round bubble
9 Popping upward from the mouths of bells People and cows.
The Lyonians had always thought 12 Heaven would be something else,
But with the same faces, The same places . . . 15 It was not a shock -
The clear, green, quite breathable atmosphere, Cold grits underfoot,
18 And the spidery water-dazzle on field and street.
It never occurred that they had been forgot, That the big God
21 Had lazily closed one eye and let them slip Over the English cliff and under so much history!
They did not see him smile, 24 Turn, like an animal,
In his cage of ether, his cage of stars.
He'd had so many wars!
27 The white gape of his mind was the real Tabula Rasa.
21 October 1962
F r o m : S. P l a t h , Collected Poems, p p . 233 f. R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n of O l w y n H u g h e s .
3.1. T h e T i t l e o f the P o e m
" L y o n n e s s e , " the t i t l e o f the p o e m taken f r o m its first line, is o b v i o u s l y a h o m o - p h o n e o f lioness, 'the female l i o n ' . T h e image o f the lioness p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n P l a t h ' s late p o e t r y . It is best k n o w n from the t i t l e p o e m of her second c o l - l e c t i o n of p o e m s , w r i t t e n o n O c t o b e r 27, 1962, her t h i r t i e t h b i r t h d a y : " A r i e l . "2 5
" G o d ' s lioness" f r o m the second s t a n z a is a s y n o n y m for " A r i e l , " as t h i s n a m e m e a n s the ' l i o n (lioness) o f G o d ' i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t . T h e (female) speaker of the p o e m , the l y r i c a l " I , " identifies herself w i t h " G o d ' s lioness." O t h e r c o n n o t a - t i o n s o f " A r i e l " are the ' a i r y s p i r i t ' f r o m Shakespeare's Tempest, set free at the e n d o f the p l a y ; i t was also the n a m e of a horse t h a t S y l v i a P l a t h rode at a r i d i n g s c h o o l o n D a r t m o o r . It has been stressed t h a t w o r d p l a y and different levels of m e a n i n g are i n t e n t i o n a l w i t h P l a t h :
Her etymological usages are usually quite deliberate; there may be irony (as in "Lesbos") or deliberate distortion or "iconotropy," but not vagueness or
26
inaccuracy.
T h e o t h e r uses o f the lioness image p o i n t to the c o n n o t a t i o n of a female avenger.
S y l v i a P l a t h m a y have got the i n s p i r a t i o n for this s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g of the female l i o n f r o m a n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of G r e e k classical p l a y s w h i c h she was r e a d i n g d u r i n g the s u m m e r o f 1 9 6 2 .2 7 In E u r i p i d e s ' Medea, the heroine is d e s c r i b e d as a
"lioness" by her h u s b a n d , J a s o n , after he has discovered t h a t she has k i l l e d their c h i l d r e n to avenge his d e s e r t i o n .2 8 In A e s c h y l u s ' Agamemnon, C a s s a n d r a calls C l y t e m n e s t r a , w h o m u r d e r s her h u s b a n d for his sacrifice of their daughter, I p h i - g e n i a , a " t w o - f o o t e d l i o n e s s . "2 9 T h e m e n a c i n g e n d i n g of P l a t h ' s p o e m " P u r d a h "
c l e a r l y refers to the M e d e a a n d C l y t e m n e s t r a m y t h s : "I s h a l l unloose . . . / T h e l i o n e s s , / T h e shriek i n the b a t h , / T h e cloak o f h o l e s . "3 0 F i n a l l y , the female l i o n m a y be a n a l l u s i o n to T e d Hughes's a s t r o l o g i c a l sign, leo.
25 P o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d i n 1965. P l a t h , Collected Poems, p p . 239 f.
26 J . K r o l l , p . 159. F o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of " A r i e l " cf. K r o l l , p p . 180-85. T h e n a m e of S y l v i a P l a t h ' s h o r s e is m e n t i o n e d i n P l a t h , Collected Poems, N o t e s , p. 294, no. 194.
27 C f . L . W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p. 211.
28 I n a p e r s o n a l m e m o i r , very a m b i v a l e n t a n d stressing the darker sides of S y l v i a P l a t h ' s p e r s o n - a l i t y , C l a r i s s a R o c h e calls h e r f r i e n d , w h o m she v i s i t e d i n the a u t u m n of 1962, this "New E n g l a n d M e d e a . " T h e m e m o i r is p u b l i s h e d i n E d w a r d B u t s c h e r , e d . , Sylvia Plath: The Woman and the
Work (1977; L o n d o n : P e t e r O w e n , 1979), p p . 81-96, here p . 85. B u t s c h e r ' s own i n t r o d u c t i o n "In S e a r c h o f S y l v i a " is gossipy, narcissistic, egocentric, a n d full of m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . It s h o u l d be i g n o r e d a l o n g w i t h his - now a n y w a y o u t d a t e d - b i o g r a p h y , Sylvia Plath: Method and Madness ( N e w Y o r k : S e a b u r y P r e s s , 1976).
29 C f . J . K r o l l , p p . 157 f.
30 S. P l a t h , " P u r d a h , " i n Collected Poems, p . 244. A n o t h e r reference to a lionlike avenger o c c u r s i n "Stings," where the s p e a k e r likens her "self," w h i c h she has to recover, to the q u e e n bee w i t h h e r " l i o n - r e d b o d y " ( P l a t h , Collected Poems, p. 215). C f . L . W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p p . 217 f.
3.2. T h e M y t h o l o g i c a l L e v e l o f M e a n i n g
T h e first level o f m e a n i n g o f the p o e m deals w i t h the sunken l a n d o f L y o n e s s e a n d G o d ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for l e t t i n g it " s l i p / O v e r the E n g l i s h cliff" (11. 21 f.). T h e p o e m o p e n s w i t h the e m p h a t i c s t a t e m e n t t h a t it is useless to seek L y o n n e s s e a n y longer. It has v a n i s h e d under the sea, and the place where it sunk is d e s c r i b e d i n m e t a p h o r i c r a t h e r t h a n geographic terms: "the w h i t e , h i g h b e r g3 1 o n h i s forehead" (1. 3) is at first p u z z l i n g , but at the end of the p o e m one realizes t h a t the m a l e p r o n o u n i n the t h i r d line refers to the " b i g G o d " (1. 20), w h o has s i m p l y f o r g o t t e n L y o n n e s s e . T h e c i t y has been s u b m e r g e d i n the d e p t h s o f G o d ' s m i n d , a n d the iceberg "on his forehead" is an image o f his a m n e s i a . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o r r o b o r a t e d by the fact t h a t S y l v i a P l a t h i n t e n d e d to s u b s u m e the w h o l e p o e m u n d e r the t i t l e o f " A m n e s i a c . " T h e image of the m e t a p h o r i c p l a c e of the c a t a s t r o p h e is e x p a n d e d i n the following lines w h e n the poet speaks o f the
"sea o f h i s [God's] eyes" w a s h i n g over the flooded l a n d . P l a t h uses the p o e t i c adjective " g i l t " (1. 6) at the end o f a series of i n t e n s i f y i n g adjectives to describe the c o l o u r o f the sea. T h i s epithet gains further significance by its h o m o p h o n e guilt, a n d thus " i n d e t e r m i n a t e g i l t ( g u i l t ) " assumes a very a m b i v a l e n t m e a n i n g . T h a t the " g u i l t " o f the G o d is, however, not the perspective o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the f o u n d e r e d t o w n becomes clear i n the stanzas f o l l o w i n g . U n d e r the sea, the life o f the " L y o n i a n s " goes o n as i f n o t h i n g h a d happened a n d they even s u r m i s e t o be l i v i n g i n a k i n d o f H e a v e n . T h e c r u e l t r u t h , u n k n o w n to the blissfully i g n o r a n t i n h a b i t a n t s o f Lyonesse, is revealed i n the last three stanzas o f the p o e m . T h e creator o f the w o r l d , the " b i g G o d , " has t u r n e d away f r o m his c r e a t i o n . H e is no longer i n t e r e s t e d i n his work a n d s i m p l y lets catastrophes h a p p e n , " l a z i l y clos[ing]
one eye" (1. 21), as i f i n t a c i t c o l l u s i o n w i t h the destructive forces of the u n i v e r s e . M o r e o v e r , the G o d - f i g u r e is not o n l y o b l i v i o u s to his c r e a t i o n , he has b e c o m e i t s prisoner: " l i k e a n a n i m a l , / In his cage of ether, his cage of stars" (11. 24 f.). I n h i s m i n d there is o n l y a w h i t e b l a n k , and he is like a patient suffering f r o m a m n e s i a , a t h o u g h t e l a b o r a t e d i n " A m n e s i a c , " the second part of the p o e m w h i c h was to follow " L y o n n e s s e . " A s i m i l a r l y negative G o d - i m a g e is presented i n P l a t h ' s p o e m
" Y e a r s , " w r i t t e n on N o v e m b e r 16, 1962:
O God, I am not like you In your vacuous black,
Stars stuck all over, bright stupid confetti.3 2
T h e r e are echoes o f the v a c u o u s l y " g a p i n g " G o d i n T e d Hughes's Crow p o e m s ,3 3 and it m a y w e l l be t h a t his a c r i m o n i o u s p u n on "agape" ( ' s t a r i n g w i t h o p e n m o u t h ' or i o v e - f e a s t ' ) s t e m s f r o m the couple's discussions of their poetic c o n c e p t i o n s .
31 " B e r g " : s h o r t for 'iceberg'.
32 S. P l a t h , Collected Poems, p . 255.
33 E . g . " C r o w C o m m u n e s , " i n T e d H u g h e s , Crow (1970, 1972; L o n d o n : F a b er p a p e r b a c k , 1985), p . 30.
T h e representation of G o d as i m p o t e n t , unconcerned and weary is, o f course, r a d i c a l l y different f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i e v a l image of G o d as o m n i p o t e n t , a l l - p e r v a s i v e , a n d a l l - l o v i n g . A f t e r the scientific r e v o l u t i o n at the end of the sixteenth c e n t u r y , the m e d i e v a l w o r l d p i c t u r e broke d o w n ; it became a "discarded i m a g e . "
N e w ideas, like t h a t o f G o d the ' w a t c h m a k e r ' , replaced the m e d i e v a l ones. A n e w p h i l o s o p h y reshaped the i m a g e o f m a n . E m p i r i c i s m b e c a m e the r e l i g i o n of the age. T h e r e is a n a l l u s i o n to this i n S y l v i a P l a t h ' s last line: " T h e w h i t e g a p e o f his m i n d was the real T a b u l a R a s a . " T h e i d e a t h a t m a n is b o r n w i t h a m i n d c o m p l e t e l y e m p t y , a tabula rasa, was p u t forward by the seventeenth-century p h i l o s o p h e r J o h n L o c k e . H e rejected the C h r i s t i a n (and n e o - p l a t o n i c ) n o t i o n t h a t ideas a n d c o n c e p t i o n s are p a r t a n d parcel o f the h u m a n heritage a n d c l a i m e d t h a t k n o w l e d g e (Erkenntnis) c o u l d o n l y be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h the process of experience.
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n is thus reduced or even denied, a n d t h o u g h L o c k e d i d not e x p l i c i t l y deny the existence o f G o d or of a d i v i n e s o u l , his p h i l o s o p h y was a step i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n .
S y l v i a P l a t h takes the i m a g e of the tabula rasa one b o l d step further a n d transfers i t to G o d h i m s e l f : his m i n d is the r e a l Tabula Rasa.34 T h i s is c e r t a i n l y a far c r y f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n n o t i o n of an o m n i s c i e n t G o d . Instead, sadness a n d bitterness p r e v a i l i n P l a t h ' s image of G o d . T h e p o e m conveys the feeling t h a t m a n has been deserted by d i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e , w h i c h does not exist any l o n g e r or has indeed never e x i s t e d . M a n has been left i n the l u r c h .
B r o u g h t up i n a M e t h o d i s t s u r r o u n d i n g ,3 5 S y l v i a P l a t h d e s c r i b e d herself as an "agnostic h u m a n i s t "
d u r i n g her u n d e r g r a d u a t e y e a r s .3 6 A s an a d u l t wo- m a n a n d m o t h e r she c a l l e d herself " a p a g a n - U n i t a r i - a n at b e s t , "3 7 b u t i n spite o f this she stressed the i m - p o r t a n c e o f a C h r i s t i a n u p b r i n g i n g a n d the efficacy o f p r a y e r s . T h a t is w h y she wanted her c h i l d r e n to be b a p t i z e d a n d to a t t e n d S u n d a y S c h o o l .3 8
34 S u s a n B a s s n e t t h i n k s t h a t the " T a b u l a R a s a contrasts i r o n i c a l l y w i t h the i d e a of the R o u n d T a b l e , s y m b o l o f k n i g h t h o o d a n d perfection," thus s y m b o l i z i n g the loss of i d e a l i s m . B a s s n e t , Sylvia Plath, p . 99. T h i s is a far-fetched idea; the a l l u s i o n to L o c k e comes to m i n d first.
35 H e r f a t h e r was a L u t h e r a n P r o t e s t a n t , her m o t h e r , who was r a i s e d as a C a t h o l i c , h a d b r o k e n w i t h h e r f a i t h as an u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d b e c o m e a p r a c t i s i n g M e t h o d i s t . C f . L . W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p . 19.
36 yy W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p . 75.
37 P l a t h ' s l e t t e r to h e r m o t h e r , O c t o b e r 22, 1961, Lett ers Home, p. 433.
38 P l a t h ' s l e t t e r to her m o t h e r , M a r c h 12, 1962, Letters Home, p. 449.
T h e i m a g e o f G o d as a vacuous non-entity in poems like "Lyonnesse" or " Y e a r s "
is not the p o e t ' s last c o m m e n t u p o n the subject. D u r i n g the last three m o n t h s o f her life S y l v i a P l a t h regained a new interest i n religious m a t t e r s . She s t a r t e d a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h " a R o m a n C a t h o l i c priest at O x f o r d , also a p o e t , " a n d c o n s u l t e d h i m a b o u t questions o f f a i t h .3 9 R e l i g i o u s a l l u s i o n s occur frequently i n her last p o e m s .4 0 She collected notes on S t . Therese, S t . Teresa, St. J o h n o f the C r o s s , a n d o t h e r C h r i s t i a n m y s t i c s ,4 1 a n d she herself h a d v i s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s .4 2 She left t h i s w o r l d w i t h more questions t h a n answers:
Once one has seen God, what is the remedy? 43
3.3. T h e P e r s o n a l M e a n i n g o f the P o e m
O n a s e c o n d level the p o e m is a b o u t a female being called "Lyonnesse" or "lioness,"
w h o is deserted by a m a l e G o d - l i k e b e i n g .4 4 Here the allusions to A r t h u r i a n r o m a n c e , t o T r i s t r a m of L y o n e s a n d to M a l o r y ' s Lyonesse, fall i n t o place. T h i s second level o f m e a n i n g is also i n e x t r i c a b l y interwoven w i t h P l a t h ' s b i o g r a p h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the events of the last a u t u m n of her life. A s i n the " A r i e l " p o e m , the speaker identifies herself w i t h " G o d ' s lioness." W e are p r o b a b l y j u s t i f i e d i n a s s u m i n g t h a t i n "Lyonnesse" the female speaker is i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f " A r i e l . "
T h e m a l e b e i n g has e r a d i c a t e d the female from his m i n d , a n d this a m n e s i a , w h e t h e r p r e t e n d e d or r e a l ,4 5 is his p e r s o n a l , " i n d e t e r m i n a t e " g u i l t . F o r the deserted w o m a n life m u s t go o n , b u t it assumes an u n r e a l , a r t i f i c i a l character, a r t i c u l a t e d i n the i m a g e o f l i v i n g under water or under a bell j a r ( " . . . a r o u n d b u b b l e / P o p p i n g
39 P l a t h ' s l e t t e r to her m o t h e r , D e c e m b e r 14, 1962, Letters Home, p . 490; L . W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p . 226.
40 C f . " N i c k a n d the C a n d l e s t i c k , " "Years," " M a r y ' s Song," "Brasilia," "Gigolo," " M y s t i c . "
4 1 L . W . W a g n e r - M a r t i n , p. 240.
42 J . K r o l l , p. 177.
43 " M y s t i c , " w r i t t e n F e b r u a r y 1, 1963, P l a t h , Collected Poems, p. 268.
44 In h e r l e t t e r to the a u t h o r s (cf. note 4) O . H u g h e s calls a t t e n t i o n to the fact t h a t S y l v i a P l a t h e x p e r i e n c e d a f u n d a m e n t a l feeling of loss a n d d e s e r t i o n at a very early stage i n her life, w h e n she lost her father at the age of eight: " F r o m her response to her m o t h e r o n h e a r i n g of her father's d e a t h , 'I'll n e v e r s p e a k to G o d again!' ( P l a t h , Letters Home, I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . 25), she seems to have b e e n d i s a p p o i n t e d in H i m [God] - t h o u g h [she] w o u l d have d e a r l y l i k e d to believe." T h i s s t a t e m e n t is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y P l a t h ' s line in her f a m o u s " D a d d y " p o e m : "I u s e d to p r a y to r e c o v e r y o u " ( P l a t h , Collected Poems, p. 222). T h e green a n d b l u e c o l o u r s of t h e sea i n " D a d d y " (1. 12) c o n s t i t u t e a further l i n k to "Lyonnesse" a n d u n d e r l i n e O . H u g h e s ' s r e m a r k t h a t "her [Plath's] c o n c e p t i o n of her father a n d his replacement - her h u s b a n d - b o t h . . . b l e d into h e r c o n c e p t i o n of G o d - b o t h in g r a n d e u r a n d indifference."
W e w o u l d like to e x t e n d o u r sincerest t h a n k s to O l w y n H u g h e s for h e r c o o p e r a t i o n a n d h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s .
45 In the p o e m " T h e Jailer," w r i t t e n on O c t o b e r 17, 1962, the n a r r a t o r s p e a k s of the m a n ' s
"high c o l d m a s k s of a m n e s i a , " P l a t h , Collected Poems, p. 227.
u p w a r d f r o m the m o u t h s o f bells . . . , " 11. 8 f.), an a l l u s i o n to the c e n t r a l t i t l e - g i v i n g i m a g e o f P l a t h ' s n o v e l . T h e speaker's voice r e m a i n s s u b d u e d , w i t h the d i c t i o n h i g h l y f o r m a l i s e d ; a n d yet, the sad p o i g n a n c y of loss prevails t h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e p o e m .
3.4. P o e t i c T e c h n i q u e
" L y o n n e s s e " belongs to the group of m a t u r e poems from P l a t h ' s late p e r i o d of w r i t i n g . O n e of her f a v o u r i t e verse forms was the three-line s t a n z a . O t h e r e x a m p l e s are "Fever 1 0 3 ° , " " A r i e l , " " N i c k a n d the C a n d l e s t i c k , " " P u r d a h , " " L a d y L a z a r u s , "
etc. T h e r e is n o set p a t t e r n of r h y t h m or r h y m e , the speech r h y t h m r a t h e r follows the p a t t e r n o f s p o k e n language, thus b e a r i n g witness to P l a t h ' s c o m m e n t o n her late p o e t r y i n the i n t e r v i e w w i t h Peter O r r t h a t these p o e m s are m e a n t to be r e a d a l o u d , as she herself recited t h e m a l o u d before she wrote t h e m d o w n .4 6 T h e r h y t h m o f speech is at once n a t u r a l a n d h i g h l y a r t i f i c i a l , a n d it is p r o o f o f P l a t h ' s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s as an a r t i s t t h a t she succeeded i n m a k i n g her best p o e m s s o u n d so i n t r i g u i n g l y n a t u r a l . O c c a s i o n a l r h y m e s or assonances, t h o u g h always u n o b t r u s i v e , serve as a c c e n t u a t i o n : g i l t / i t (11. 6-7), faces/places (11. 13-14), f o r g o t / G o d (11. 19- 2 0 ) , s t a r s / w a r s (11.25-26). T h e technique o f r u n - o n lines a n d stanzas is used very efficiently: " T h e . . . i n d e t e r m i n a t e g i l t / Sea of his eyes . . . " (11. 5-7), " . . . let t h e m s l i p / O v e r the E n g l i s h cliff . . . " (11. 21-22).
T h e r e is no l y r i c a l " I " i n the p o e m a n d this serves as a means o f d i s t a n c i n g the tone o f the speaker. A l t h o u g h the audience is addressed i n the e x c l a m a t i o n of the first a n d the i m p e r a t i v e of the t h i r d line, it is as i f the speaker's voice reaches us f r o m very far away. T h i s is due to the i m p e r s o n a l and often e l l i p t i c sentence s t r u c t u r e s . T h o u g h the speaker's voice is u n e m o t i o n a l , a sadness o f tone clings a b o u t the w h o l e p o e m . T h i s is the result of the speaker's height of v i s i o n : he, or, r a t h e r , she has seen it a l l h a p p e n , has witnessed the course o f h i s t o r y , a n d knows b e t t e r t h a n the " L y o n i a n s " a n d even the " b i g G o d , " w h o has o n l y a beast-like e x i s t e n c e . T h e speaker is even capable of e x c u s i n g h i m feebly ( " H e ' d h a d so m a n y w a r s ! " , 1. 26), before, however, c a s t i n g a c o l d , a n a l y t i c light on the state of his m i n d i n the last line of the p o e m .
* * *
I n c o n c l u s i o n i t m a y be said t h a t i n "Lyonnesse" a h i s t o r i c a l m y t h becomes the s y m b o l o f desertion a n d loneliness. "Sunk Lyonesse" is S y l v i a P l a t h ' s " W a s t e L a n d . " R i c h i n m y t h o l o g i c a l , poetic a n d personal a l l u s i o n s , the p o e m ' s i m p e r - s o n a l i t y comes u p to T . S. E l i o t ' s p o s t u l a t e t h a t p o e t r y s h o u l d integrate p r i v a t e s e n s i b i l i t y i n t o a t r a d i t i o n larger t h a n any i n d i v i d u a l suffering.
46 P . O r r , p . 170.
