U L R I C H P F I S T E R E R
Origins and Principles of World Art
History-
1900 (and 2000)
A t first glance, D a v i d S u m m e r s ' s 2003 Real Spaces: World Art His
tory and the Rise of Western Modernism a n d J o h n O n i a n s ' s 2004 Atlas of World Art — a l t h o u g h b o t h a t t e m p t s t o e n c o m p a s s w o r l d art history; a l t h o u g h b o t h similarly m o n u m e n t a l b o o k s — c o u l d not a p p e a r t o b e m o r e d i f f e r e n t in c o n c e p t , m e t h o d o l o g y , a n d p r e sentation. O f the m a n y m o r e c o m p a r a b l e f e a t u r e s w h i c h d o emerge o n c l o s e r r e a d i n g , here I p r i m a r i l y wish t o e m p h a s i z e o n l y one: b o t h w o r k s present t h e m s e l v e s as a b s o l u t e l y innovative.1
O n i a n s c l a i m s t o b e t a k i n g " a w h o l e n e w a p p r o a c h t o the s u b j e c t "
of art; w h e r e a s . S u m m e r s declares that prior " f o r m a l i s t , c o n t e x t u a l and p o s t - s t r u c t u r a l a p p r o a c h e s t o art c a n n o t p r o v i d e the basis f o r a truly g l o b a l a n d i n t e r c u l t u r a l art history," t h e r e f o r e h e " m e a n [ s ] to m a k e it p o s s i b l e for t r a d i t i o n s o f art ( a n d art h i s t o r y ) t o a d d r e s s one a n o t h e r in n e w w a y s . "2 F o r b o t h authors, p r e m i s e s o f m e t h o d ological n o v e l t y a n d o f originality m a k e it s u p e r f l u o u s e v e n t o p o s e the q u e s t i o n o f earlier historical a t t e m p t s t o deal specifically with world art — t h o u g h S u m m e r s in particular c o m m e n c e s with a lengthy r e v i e w o f art historical t h i n k i n g a n d f r e q u e n t l y brings t h e luminaries o f E u r o p e a n intellectual t r a d i t i o n , f r o m P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e t o K a n t a n d H e g e l , to bear in his a r g u m e n t s .
These claims seem to be over-staled:
absolute innovation" is a character
istic quality of the self-proclaimed avant-garde artist/intellectual, as
hown by Krauss [985;equally avail- ible are the "absolute" paradigm hiftsin the sciences, sec Kuhn 1962.
2
Summers 2003: dust jacket and p. 13;
but see also p. 15ft his claim to have broken with "all that has gone before"
Onians 2004. to. To name just some of the more important reviews: Elkins 21H14; Silver 2004: K e m p 2005.
Originalveröffentlichung in: Zijlmans, Kitty (Hrsg.): World art studies : exploring concepts and approaches, Valiz 2008, S. 69-89
Obviously, this is not meant to deny that there are —in other contexts- excellent discussions of the "history of the study of non-European art," as for example the chapter of the same name in Gerbrands 1957, 25-65.
4
The bibliography on these questions is overwhelming: two comprehensive books are Torgovnick 1990 and Connelly 1995.
5
The state of research (with further bibli
ography) may be found in Halbcrtsma 2003 and Muller 2003; for Asian art his
tory, see also Von Erdberg 1985.
6
This is to claim for art history what Bunzl and Penny 2003. iff has outlined for the anthropological (and historical) disciplines in an excellent contribution, albeit with a slightly different chro
nology of the decisive changes and a tendency to undervalue the factor of
"psychology."
T h i s t e n d e n c y t o o v e r l o o k o l d e r art historical research o n t h e t h e m e o f w o r l d art is a characteristic d i s p l a y e d n o t o n l y b y S u m m e r s a n d O n i a n s .3 N a t u r a l l y , at least since the p e r i o d in w h i c h E a r l y M o d e r n Kunst- and Wunderkatnmern w e r e p i e c e d t o g e t h e r , e x a m p l e s o f " e x o t i c h a n d i c r a f t " h a v e b e e n t h e t o p i c o f discussions across E u r o p e . It w a s a t o p i c w h i c h a c c r u e d e v e n m o r e intense interest in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n n e w m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e , i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x p o s i t i o n s w e r e h e l d , t h e sys
t e m a t i c a c q u i s i t i o n o f c o l o n i e s b y a l m o s t all Kultur-Nationen w a s in full s w i n g a n d t h e first a t t e m p t s t o establish e t h n o l o g i c a l m u s e u m s w e r e m a d e . E v e r s i n c e t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e r e has b e e n a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y high r e g a r d a n d nostalgia f o r t h e " n o b l e s a v a g e " a n d t h e " o r i g i n a l " — q u a l i t i e s w h i c h f r o m a E u r o p e a n p e r s p e c t i v e b o t h c o n t e m p o r a r y i n d i g e n o u s a n d p r e h i s t o r i c p e o p l e s a l i k e s e e m e d t o o f f e r . T h e h e i r s t o this n o s t a l g i a in a c e r t a i n sense w e r e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e intelligentsia a n d t h e m o d e r n artists o f the late n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s w h i c h w e r e e n t h u s i a s tic a b o u t a p p r o p r i a t i n g i n d i g e n o u s arts a n d cultures.4 A l l this s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e f o c u s o f research f o r q u i t e a l o n g time. T o day, n e v e r t h e l e s s , m o s t o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s o f art h i s t o r y a n d o t h e r disciplines, at least as p r a c t i c e d u p t o the 1970s, a p p e a r to bear t h e s t a m p o f c o l o n i a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d E u r o c e n t r i s m , t o s u c h an e x tent i n d e e d that m o s t r e s e a r c h t o d a y c a n p r o c e e d o n l y u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f " p o s t c o l o n i a l s t u d i e s " — a n d o n l y b y r a d i c a l l y d i s t a n c i n g itself f r o m its f o r e r u n n e r s ( S c h m i d t - L i n s e n h o f f 2003; E r r i n g t o n 1997; T h o m a s 1999; V o l k e n a n d t 2004; B r u c k n e r 2004).
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f this, the first e f f o r t s t o a r r i v e at a w o r l d art history b y G e r m a n - l a n g u a g e writers h a v e until n o w large
ly b e e n s e e n in direct r e l a t i o n t o the a c q u i s i t i o n , b e g i n n i n g in t h e 1880s, o f G e r m a n c o l o n i e s .5 T h e p u r p o s e o f m y c o n t r i b u t i o n is t o a r g u e against this a s s u m p t i o n b y r e v e a l i n g t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l aspects a n d s k e t c h i n g in the details t o m a k e a m o r e c o m p l e x picture6: m y first p o i n t is t h a t the b e g i n n i n g s o f G e r m a n r e s e a r c h o n w o r l d art, d a t i n g b a c k t o the 1880s a n d 1890s, d e r i v e d f r o m t h e interdis
c i p l i n a r y c o n t e x t o f texts a n d discussions w h i c h s o far h a v e b e e n v i r t u a l l y or e n t i r e l y i g n o r e d b y art history, n a m e l y , c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d p s y c h o l o g y . M y s e c o n d c o n t e n t i o n is the fact that n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y art historians initially f o c u s e d o n t h e s e a p p a r e n t l y u n c o m m o n q u e s t i o n s c a n h a r d l y h a v e b e e n the o u t c o m e solely o f
" c o l o n i a l i s t t h i n k i n g , " b u t m a y also b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m e t h o d o logical a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l crises w h i c h agitated G e r m a n art history d u r i n g these years. T h e third p o i n t a b o u t w h i c h I wish t o s p e a k is t o m a k e at least a passing r e f e r e n c e t o w h y these b e g i n n i n g s o f w o r l d art h i s t o r y in the G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g r e a l m r e c e i v e d little in
t e r n a t i o n a l n o t i c e , a n d , after c. 1930, fell i n t o such c o m p l e t e o b l i v i o n that t o d a y it is necessary t o d i s c o v e r these d i s c u s s i o n s anew.
F u r t h e r m o r e , a certain k i n d o f q u e s t i o n a s k e d is c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o n l y if v e r y distinct, n a t i o n a l l y particular historical t r a j e c t o r i e s such as that in G e r m a n y a n d A u s t r i a at t h e turn o f t h e t w e n t i e t h
70 World Art Studies I Historiography
c e n t u r y are t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . W h e n this step is t a k e n , s u c h s t u d ies o n the h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f art h i s t o r y are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o an analytical t o o l ( n o t an a n t i q u a r i a n q u e s t ) in t h e search to u n d e r stand o u r o w n c u l t u r a l - i n t e l l e c t u a l situations, c o n d i t i o n s , a n d concepts o f t h i n k i n g .
N e e d l e s s t o say, s o m e o f the f o l l o w i n g i d e a s s u g g e s t e d can h a r d l y c l a i m t o d o a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n just hint at topics o f inter
est. I n the c o m p l e x i n t e r m i n g l i n g t e x t u r e o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y theories, m y a r g u m e n t h a s t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n the m a i n c o n t e x t , the p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l , a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f a w o r l d art history. I will i n t r o d u c e t h e r e a d e r t o certain m a r g i n a l ized a u t h o r s a n d texts, w h i c h m o s t e x p l i c i t l y d e m a n d e d a w o r l d art p e r s p e c t i v e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a m e t h o d i c a l r e v i s i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l art history in the first place.
See Heinz 1970; Nachtsheim 1984:
Henckmann 1985: Mallgrave and Ikonomou 1994; Locher 1999 and Locher 2001,203-97); f°r the over
riding tradition of formal, nonspecula- tive aesthetics, with special emphasis on R. Zimmermann and Herbartian- ism, see Wiesing 1997.
KUNSTWISSENSCHAFT, A N T H R O P O L O G Y , A N D T H E P S Y C H O L O G Y O F A R T
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l crisis i n G e r m a n art h i s t o r y in t h e d e c a d e s a r o u n d 1900 c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d s u m m a r i l y as a battle b e t w e e n Kunstgeschichte ( " a r t h i s t o r y " ) a n d Kunstwissenschaft ( " t h e sci
ence o f a r t " ) . W h e r e a s t h e a d h e r e n t s o f Kunstgeschichte—Karl Friedrich v o n R u m o h r a m o n g o t h e r s — c o n c e n t r a t e d o n s t u d y i n g and a c c u m u l a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l historical data, the d e f e n d e r s o f Kunstwissenschaft s o u g h t in these n e w l y a c c u m u l a t e d facts b i n d i n g principles o f art (Grundbegriffe) a n d o v e r a r c h i n g rules g o v e r n i n g its d e v e l o p m e n t - o n a strictly " s c i e n t i f i c " m e t h o d o l o g i c a l basis a n d without falling b a c k o n idealistic c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e late e i g h t eenth a n d e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s o r o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s o f d e d u c t ive aesthetic a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n .7
T h e latter g r o u p ' s c l a i m s w e r e g i v e n extra i m p e t u s b y the institutional s i t u a t i o n in t h e field w h i c h r e q u i r e d d u a l l e g i t i m a t i o n . A s a recently created university discipline, the s t u d y o f art h i s t o r y had t o d e m o n s t r a t e its " s c i e n t i f i c " d i m e n s i o n in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h other h u m a n s c i e n c e s — a n d it h a d t o fulfil the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a
"science," p r i m a r i l y e x p r e s s e d as holistic e x p l a n a t o r y m o d e l s a n d laws ( D i l l y 1979; K o n i g a n d L a m m e r t 1999; L o c h e r 2001, esp. 3 7 8 - 397)- S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , art h i s t o r y h a d t o secure an i n d e p e n d e n t p r o file in o r d e r t o contrast itself to the discipline o f history, w h i c h h a d p r o v i d e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l m o d e l for the p o s i t i v - ist Kunstgeschichte in t h e t r a d i t i o n o f R u m o h r . T h i s p r e d o m i n a n c e of history as a discipline l o o m e d e v e n m o r e t h r e a t e n i n g l y in the 1880s a n d t h e r e a f t e r , w h e n a g r o w i n g t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s the w r i t i n g of an a l l - e m b r a c i n g " c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y " e m e r g e d . T h i s i n c l u d e d t h e study o f art as a s u b f i e l d a n d t h e r e b y a t t e m p t i n g t o i n c o r p o r a t e art history i n t o itself as a k i n d o f s e c o n d a r y discipline ( H a a s 1994).
P r o b a b l y t h e m o s t d e c i s i v e a t t e m p t t o s o l v e this d i l e m m a
° n the part o f Kunstwissenschaft i n v o l v e d an o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s the n a t u r a l sciences, initially b a s e d o n their classification systems,
'"gins and Principles of World Art History-1900 (and 2000)
Kuper 1988,2 (esp. for G e r m a n y 12911);
for Ihe importance and popularization of Darwin's ideas on the whole range of
"the h u m a n sciences" see Y o u n g 1995 (esp. for psychology 5 6 - 7 8 ) and D a u m 1998. See for a very selective discussion of the influence of D a r w i n on nine teenth-century art historical writings, G o l d e n 2001. In the decades around 1900, the terms "anthropology," "eth
nology." " e t h n o g r a p h y " and the like were not yet precisely defined, see for example H a d d o n t y t o , p r e f a c e .
9
See Hauser 1985/and Matlgrave 1985;
the modifications of Semper's original theories by, for example. E . E . Viollet- l e - D u c and A . Choisy. are outlined in K r u f t 1985,321-328.
m o s t f a m o u s l y d e v e l o p e d f o r p a l e o n t o l o g y b y G e o r g e s C u v i e r . T h e n C h a r l e s D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n b e g a n t o e x e r t a n i n f l u e n c e ( n e v e r t h e l e s s the t r a d i t i o n a l l y v e r y p r o m i n e n t G e r m a n p h i l o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s c o n t i n u e d t o p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t role, n o t least b e c a u s e t h e r e s e a r c h o n a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d p r e h i s t o r y p e r t a i n ing t o n e w l y f o u n d relics o f p r e h i s t o r i c life p r i o r t o t h e a d v e n t o f D a r w i n a n d t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h century, w a s carried o u t m a i n l y b y
" c o m p a r a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s " ) . I n a nutshell: D a r w i n ' s ( a n d o t h e r s ' ) i d e a s a b o u t p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y h a d to b e e x t e n d e d a n d c o m p l e m e n t e d b y a n e w a n t h r o p o l o g y o f culture. A " s c i e n t i f i c p r o g r a m m e , " t o w h i c h history, r e l i g i o u s studies a n d linguistics, as w e l l as the n e w disciplines o f the " h u m a n s c i e n c e s " (such as art history, e t h n o l o g y , p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g y , p s y c h o l o g y , a n d o t h e r s ) w e r e e a g e r t o c o n t r i b u t e . T h e fact that D a r w i n ' s t r i u m p h s t i m u l a t e d a v e r y " u n - D a r w i n i a n a n t h r o p o l o g y " ( o f t e n m o r e i n d e b t e d t o J e a n - B a p t i s t e d e L a m a r c k a n d H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , t o n a m e just t w o ) n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s h e r e i n detail.8
O u t o f t h e s e e x e m p l a r y scientific m o d e l s a n d their c o n c o m i tant i n d u c t i v e m e t h o d , art h i s t o r y initially g a i n e d a " f u n c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l i s m " in t h e t r e n d o f G o t t f r i e d S e m p e r , w h o , c o m m e n c i n g w i t h t h e p r i m i t i v e b e g i n n i n g s o f art (their " U r f o r m e n " ) , tried t o e x p l a i n t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x d e v e l o p m e n t o f art f o r m s a n d o r n a m e n t s by their f u n c t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o m a t e r i a l s , t e c h n i q u e s a n d o t h e r social a n d c u l t u r a l factors.9 W h e n this i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o r y q u i c k l y c a m e u n d e r fire, a s e c o n d a t t e m p t w a s p r o m p t e d — o n e d e c i s i v e to m y q u e s t i o n , w h i c h h a s s o far r e c e i v e d t o o little a t t e n tion. It was c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e t h e n w i d e l y p o p u l a r " e m p i r i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , " w h i c h b o r r o w e d a m e c h a n i c a l a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d el. Its f o u n d a t i o n s w e r e laid b y the p h i l o s o p h e r J o h a n n Friedrich H e r b a r t h ( r e j e c t i n g the o l d e r t h e o r y o f a priori m e n t a l " f a c u l t i e s " ) . T h i s n e w p s y c h o l o g y r e c e i v e d decisive i m p u l s e s t h r o u g h a g r o w i n g interest in t h e n a t u r a l sciences, historical a n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d cul
tures w o r l d w i d e ( L e a r y 1977; A r e n s 1989). M a t t e r s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e the o r i g i n s o f the i m a g i n a t i v e , creative, m o r a l a n d c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l s o f t h e h u m a n s o u l / i n t e l l e c t o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d their e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d d i f f e r e n t stages o n t h e o t h e r , that is, h u m a n " p s y c h o - h i s t o r y , " w h i c h m a n i f e s t s itself in the t o t a l i t y o f c u l t u r a l o u t p u t o f h u m a n k i n d .
T w o aspects m a d e this q u e s t i o n scientifically s o attractive:
first o f all, p s y c h o l o g y p r e s e n t e d itself as t h e " m i s s i n g l i n k " b e t w e e n h u m a n p h y s i o l o g y a n d c u l t u r e ; o r t o p h r a s e it slightly d i f f e r e n t l y : t h e n e w p s y c h o l o g y s e e m e d t o m a k e it n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e m i n d a n d c u l t u r e ( t h e " s u b j e c t i v e " ) f r o m t h e d o m a i n o f scientific l a w ( t h e " o b j e c t i v e " ) . I n research in art history a n d aes
thetics, e s p e c i a l l y after the 1850s, this led t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e w m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , w h i c h w e m i g h t p e r h a p s call
" p s y c h o l o g i c a l aesthetics," o f w h i c h the H e r b a r t i a n R o b e r t Z i m m e r m a n n , R o b e r t a n d T h e o d o r V i s c h e r , G u s t a v T h e o d o r F e c h n e r a n d o t h e r s w e r e protagonists. Surprisingly, t h e s e figures
72 W o r l d A r t Studies I H i s t o r i o g r a p h y
p e r s o n a l l y s h o w e d little interest in the p r o b l e m o f " p r i m i t i v e art,"
e v e n t h o u g h their t h e o r i e s w o u l d a s s u m e a central i m p o r t a n c e in the initial discussions o n w o r l d art history ( D r u e 1983; A l l e s c h 1987; M a l l g r a v e a n d I k o n o m o u i 9 9 4 ; W i e s i n g 1997). S e c o n d l y , a n d at least f o r a certain g r o u p o f scientists, t h e quest f o r the h u m a n psyche p r o m i s e d t o d e l i v e r a c o m m o n " a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l b a s i s " — that is, a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e w h i c h w o u l d b e t h e s a m e for all h u m a n s ; o n e w h i c h c o u l d p r o v i d e o b j e c t i v e scientific g r o u n d s o f c o m p a r i s o n , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g the cultural a n d i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d d e v i a t i o n s f r o m this t o b e d e t e r m i n e d ( f o r e x a m p l e , these m i g h t result f r o m local g e o g r a p h i c or s o c i o e c o n o m i c c o n d i tions o r f r o m " r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s " ) . Since it w a s easier t o s t u d y the basics a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f these psychic m e c h a n i s m s o n such " p r i m i t i v e " h u m a n b e i n g s as prehistoric or i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s or chil
dren t h a n o n c o m p l e x E u r o p e a n high cultures, the results o f their research in those areas g a i n e d the highest respect.1 0
I n c i d e n t a l l y , J o h a n n G o t t f r i e d H e r d e r h a d a l r e a d y a t t e m p t ed s o m e t h i n g v e r y similar with his c o l l e c t i o n o f fairy tales: h e sought t o d i s c o v e r characteristics a n d c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e s w h i c h c o u l d be grasped in m o r e u n c o r r u p t e d f o r m in f o l k art a n d literature t h a n in " h i g h art." M o r e o v e r , H e r d e r — i n c o n trast t o the t h e n d o m i n a n t E n l i g h t e n m e n t d o c t r i n e o f a raison uni- verselle m a n i f e s t i n g itself in all h u m a n s alike — a l r e a d y f a v o r e d the idea o f a plurality o f cultures a n d i n d i v i d u a l histories o f p e o p l e s . W i l h e l m v o n H u m b o l d t w o u l d d e v e l o p H e r d e r ' s c o n c e p t in his Plan einer vergleichenden Anthropologic ( " P l a n o f a C o m p a r a t i v e A n t h r o p o l o g y , " 1795/97; r e m a i n e d u n p u b l i s h e d the first t i m e ) ( B r o c e i 9 8 6 ; B u n z l 1996; Z i m m e r m a n 1998, 102-5).
B y m i d - c e n t u r y , m o s t o f these t h o u g h t s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n c o m m o n c u r r e n c y in G e r m a n scientific discussions: t h e y w e r e , for e x a m p l e , succinctly p r e s e n t e d a n d discussed b e t w e e n 1859 a n d
1871 b y T h e o d o r W a i t z in the six v o l u m e s o f Anthropologic der Naturvolker, w h i c h the first w a s translated into E n g l i s h as e a r l y as
1863 as Introduction to Anthropology ( W a i t z 1863, esp. 3 8 o f f ) . Right in the v e r y first pages, the r e l e v a n c e o f p s y c h o l o g y is i n t r o duced as the o n l y possibility t o facilitate a truly scientific research into t h e cultural p h e n o m e n a o f h u m a n k i n d . F u r t h e r m o r e , W a i t z claims a " g e n e r a l u n i f o r m intellectual capacity in all h u m a n p o p u lations" f r o m the G r e e k s t o t h e H o t t e n t o t s — a u n i f o r m capacity which h a d o n l y a short w h i l e b e f o r e b e e n q u e s t i o n e d , m o s t p r o m i n ently b y G o b i n e a u in his thesis a b o u t the " i n e q u a l i t y o f races," a thought w h i c h h a d b e e n a n d w a s t o b e s h a r e d by several o t h e r in
fluential " p o l y g e n i s t thinkers," w h o a r g u e d for m u l t i p l e origins o f h u m a n races ( a n d t h e r e b y tried t o establish a "scientifically p r o v e n " f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the E u r o p e a n s a n d o t h e r peoples).1 1 A m o n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the idea o f u n i f o r m intel
lectual c a p a c i t y t h e m s e l v e s , m a n y parties still held rather c o n t r a dictory v i e w s o n m o r e o r less a n y o t h e r q u e s t i o n w h i c h h a p p e n e d to arise. T h e m a j o r i t y o f the f o l l o w e r s o f A n g l o - A m e r i c a n
10
A short summary of this idea is given by Bastian 1874. See also Bastian 1868 and Waitz 1863. Finally, when research into the human psyche became psy
choanalytical, even the drawings of neurotics were, in imitation of Freud, included in this argumentation, see V o n Sydow 1927. esp. 39.
11
G o b i n e a u (1853-1855); the first G e r m a n translation appeared only in 1898-1901 under the tilel Versuch fiber die Ungleichheil der Meftsehenracen.
For the complex history of poly
genist theories from the eighteenth century to the Nazis and the initially slow reception of G o b i n e a u in G e r many, which until c. 1900 remained, at least for the majority of the physical anthropologists, the country of m o - nogenism.see Stocking 1982.42-68:
Massin 1996: Weikart 2004.
'rigins and Principles of W o r l d A r t H i s t o r y - 1 9 0 0 ( a n d 2000) 73
12
See Stocking 1987 and Sanderson 1990, esp. 1-35: for the importance of Franz B o a s and (to a lesser extent) W. H. R.
R i v e r s in rejecting evolutionism and in
troducing ( G e r m a n ) diffusionist ideas into A n g l o - A m e r i c a n anthropology, see K u p e r 1988,125-51,162-65 a nd I7iff.
13
T h e literal translation of Volker- psychologie w o u l d be "psychology of peoples," Franz B o a s proposed " f o l k psychology." Lazarus and Steinthal
i860; outlined already in Lazarus 1851;
both texts now edited in Lazarus 2003.
See the excellent analyses of B e l k e 1982; W h i t m a n l 9 8 4: K a l m a r 1087, B u n z l 2003. and Diriwachter 2004.
14
Bastian himself stated the formative importance of Lazarus's and SteinthaTs theory and those of Waitz's writings, o n his thoughts, see Bastian 1881,32ft H o w e v e r , he subordinated linguistics and philology as they were tinged with instability and therefore not very reli
able sources for his ethnology of mate
rial culture. For Bastian's theories in general see K o p p i n g 2005; also Z i m m e r m a n 1999.206 o n Bastian and ait.
a n t h r o p o l o g y ( l e d by E d w a r d B. T y l o r ) stated a s e v e r e l y u n i l i n e a r , m a t e r i a l i s t e v o l u t i o n i s m f o r all stages o f t h e h u m a n race. C o n s e q u e n t l y , in their e y e s a n i n n a t e "artistic c o n s c i o u s n e s s " o f p r i m e v a l h u m a n k i n d , u n c h a n g e d in p r i n c i p l e o v e r t h e centuries, w a s o u t o f q u e s t i o n . C o n s i d e r i n g the e a r l y a n d " s a v a g e " m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f h u m a n h a n d i w o r k ( i n c l u d i n g o r n a m e n t , p a i n t i n g a n d t h e l i k e ) , p r e p o n d e r a n t l y t h e necessities o f s u r v i v a l a n d s o c i e t y ( a n d p r o m p t e d s c a r c e l y at all b y a n y g e n u i n e aesthetic i m p u l s e ) w e r e a c c e p t e d as p o s s i b l e m o t i v a t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e l o n g a n d s h o r t o f it w a s that the E u r o p e a n w a s b e l i e v e d t o e p i t o m i z e t h e t e l e o l o g i c a l a i m a n d i n d i s p u t a b l e role m o d e l o f all d e v e l o p m e n t s .1 2
I n c o n t r a s t t o this, e s p e c i a l l y in t h e c o n t e x t o f G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g discussions, t h e p o s t u l a t i o n o f a u n i f o r m m e n t a l capacity i n all h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s l e d t o t h e genesis o f a f u r t h e r idea: if all p e o p l e s s h a r e d t h e s a m e i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s in t h e first place w h y s h o u l d t h e s e v a r y i n g c u l t u r e s all f o l l o w the E u r o p e a n m o d e l ? A n d w e r e t h e y n o t s o p r o f o u n d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h o t h e r a n d in their characteristics that t h e y s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d w i t h o u t a p p l y ing p r e c o n c e i v e d E u r o c e n t r i c c a t e g o r i e s a n d e v a l u a t i o n s ? T h i s final step w a s e v e n t u a l l y t a k e n u p by t h e G e r m a n - J e w i s h f o u n d e r s o f Volkerpsychologie, the p h i l o s o p h e r a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t M o r i t z L a z a r u s a n d t h e linguist a n d p h i l o l o g i s t H e y m a n n Steinthal.1 3
T h e i r p r o g r a m m e o f a " p s y c h i c e t h n o l o g y , " d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e 1850s, w a s b a s e d o n s y s t e m a t i c research i n t o l a n g u a g e , religion/
m y t h o l o g y , art, a n d o t h e r similar systems o f all p e o p l e s — s i n c e , they a r g u e d , o n l y t h e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c o l l e c t i v e g e n i u s finally s e e n in synthesis o f f e r e d t h e c l u e t o t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s a n d g o v e r n ing p r i n c i p l e s o f v a r i o u s historical trajectories. L a z a r u s a n d S t e i n t h a l t r a c e d a t h e o r e t i c a l d e m a n d ( b a s e d e s p e c i a l l y o n their interests a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g in t h e field o f l a n g u a g e , w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o t h e m t o b e t h e m a i n u n i f y i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e o f a p e o p l e ) w h i c h w a s m o d i f i e d o n l y slightly later (since
i 8 6 0 ) a n d a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d t o the w h o l e r a n g e o f research o n
" p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s " ( n o w p r i m a r i l y their m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e s ) b y the f o u n d e r o f G e r m a n e t h n o l o g y , A d o l f B a s t i a n .1 4
B a s t i a n ' s u n i v e r s a l r e l a t i v i s m w a s f o u n d e d o n t h e i d e a o f t h e " p s y c h i c u n i t y of h u m a n k i n d , " w h i c h i m p l i e d e q u a l intellectual c a p a c i t i e s a n d a s s u m e d that all cultures c o u l d u l t i m a t e l y b e re
d u c e d t o the s a m e m e n t a l principles or e l e m e n t a r y t h o u g h t patterns (Elementargedanken).These basic c o m m o n p s y c h i c f o u n d a t i o n s a n d i n n a t e h u m a n u n i v e r s a l s n e v e r a c t u a l l y o c c u r r e d as such, b u t w e r e subject t o m o d i f i c a t i o n t h r o u g h an e q u a l l y i n n a t e " p r o p e n sity t o c h a n g e " as w e l l as t h r o u g h g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y a n d socially d i v e r g e n t o v e r l a y s o n d i f f e r e n t Volkergedanken ( p a t t e r n s o f t h o u g h t o f a p e o p l e ) . F o r this r e a s o n n o culture c o u l d b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n o t h e r . E v e r y p e o p l e e x i s t e d in their o w n right, in their o w n c o n t e x t a n d w i t h their o w n c a t e g o r i e s — t h o u g h w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t stages o f d e v e l o p m e n t . So, w i t h L a z a r u s , Steinthal.
a n d B a s t i a n t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f E u r o p e a n s , at least theoretically,
74 W o r l d A r t Studies 1 H i s t o r i o g r a p h y
was eclipsed. O n l y d e c a d e s later, in 1910, L u c i e n L e v y - B r u h l for
m u l a t e d an idea e v e n m o r e radical than that o f p s y c h i c u n i t y a n d equal cultures: h e p o s t u l a t e d there is a f u n d a m e n t a l alterity o f
" p r i m i t i v e , " p r e l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g , o r in o t h e r w o r d s : in L e v y - B r u h F s eyes e v e n c o g n i t i o n is relative.1 5
H e r e is n o t t h e p l a c e t o p u r s u e o t h e r , later r e c e p t i o n s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s o f Vdlkerpsychologie (by, f o r e x a m p l e , W i l h e l m W u n d t , w h o e v e n t u a l l y g a v e it a nationalist t u r n ) or its ( p a r t i a l ) r e j e c t i o n by a y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n o f G e r m a n
" d i f f u s i o n i s t e t h n o l o g i s t s " after 1904, w h o tried to e x p l a i n similar
ities o f c u l t u r e s t o o n l y a very l i m i t e d e x t e n t b y c o m m o n p s y c h i c f o u n d a t i o n s , but a t t r i b u t e d these m a i n l y t o direct transmissions.
C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y a r g u e d f o r l i m i t e d , m o r e i n - d e p t h research into Kulturkreise a n d o f h u m a n d i f f e r e n c e s f o r their o w n s a k e W h i t m a n 1984; B u n z l 2003; P e n n y 2003, esp. 1 1 0 - 2 4 ) . N o r can w e pay a d e q u a t e t r i b u t e t o f o l k p s y c h o l o g y ' s i m p o r t a n c e t o the field of s o c i o l o g y ( G e o r g S i m m e l ) o r research o n history, w h e r e it c o n tributed t o efforts t o construct a " c u l t u r a l " or " u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y "
( K a r l L a m p r e c h t ) ( L a m p r e c h t 1896; L a m p r e c h t i 9 0 5 : B r e y s i g 1896;
R a t z e l 1904; C h i c k e r i n g 1991; K o h n k e 1990; H a a s 1994).
T h e o n l y fact o f r e l e v a n c e h e r e is that t h e r e w e r e s o m e radical i m p l i c a t i o n s in all this for art history: G e r m a n y especially had q u i t e a n u m b e r o f scientists a n d intellectuals w h o a c k n o w ledged t h e "artistic i m p u l s e " as a k i n d o f i n n a t e h u m a n u n i v e r s a l and t h e r e b y c o n c e d e d the p e o p l e k n o w n as p r i m i t i v e s " r e a l a r t "
( H i r n 1900: R o t h f u c h s - S c h u l z 1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s led t o the p r o b l e m that, if all cultures a r o u n d t h e w o r l d p r o d u c e d " r e a l a r t " w h i c h a d e q u a t e ly expressed the respective attitudes a n d claims in its o w n right, this o b v i a t e d the e x i s t e n c e o f a n y o b l i g a t o r y c a n o n o f aesthetic norms.
T h e a n c i e n t E u r o p e a n ideals o f beauty, w h i c h h a d s o u g h t their le
gitimacy by r e f e r r i n g to G o d , N a t u r e , or Classical a n t i q u i t y , w e r e r o b b e d o f their validity. A e s t h e t i c principles s h o u l d be a s c e r t a i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y b y the a p p l i c a t i o n o f p e r c e p t u a l p s y c h o l o g y , using cat
egories o f a s h a r e d h u m a n p s y c h i c c o n s t i t u t i o n , but m o d i f i e d through t i m e , p l a c e a n d cultural traditions.
T w o f u r t h e r aspects of " p r i m i t i v e a r t " s h o u l d h a v e m a d e this very a t t r a c t i v e t o art historians: t h e e n o r m o u s e x p a n s i o n o f t h e range a n d o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e a n d t h e p r e s u m e d " h i s t o r y - lessness" a m o n g p r e h i s t o r i c a n d i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . " P r i m i t i v e "
peoples s e e m e d t o live w i t h o u t a historical c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w i t h o u t written history. A s n o written t e s t i m o n i a l s existed, it s e e m e d that only art a n d t h e p r o d u c t s o f h a n d i c r a f t s c o u l d o f f e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n the stages o f their cultures.1 6 T h i s u n i q u e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a p proach a l l o w e d the p r o t a g o n i s t s o f Kunstwissenschaft t o b e l i e v e that it c o u l d finally b e e m a n c i p a t e d f r o m the c o n f i n e s o f historical and p h i l o l o g i c a l research a n d c o n c e n t r a t e o n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d security o f " f o r m , " n a m e l y , o n w h a t w a s g e n u inely " v i s u a l " a n d "artistic." In this t h e c h a m p i o n s o f Kunstwissen
schaft s a w the c h a n c e f o r it t o b e c o m e o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g " h u m a n
15
Levy-Bruhl's theories were most probably not generated by German writings on anthropology, but should be seen primarily as a reaction to E.
B. Tylor's unilinear evolutionism, see Scott Littleton 1985. For an explicit reaction to Levy-Bruhl in the context of German art history see Vatter 1926, 23-34-
16
Consistently, after the "Introduction"
Luhbock 1870 begins with a chapter on "Art and Ornament." Also Schweinfurth 1875.x: "A people, as long as they are on the lowest rung of their development, are far better characterized by their industrial prod
ucts ["Kunstfleisses"] than they are either by their habits, which may be purely local, or by their own represen
tations, which (rendered in their rude and unformed language) are often incorrectly interpreted by us. If we possessed more of these tokens, we should be in a position to comprehend better than we do the primitive condi
tion of many a nation which has now reached a high degree of culture." In contrast, only a few years earlier, Prichard (1848) did not even mention art and art history.
An indication of the success of art history in its quest for disciplinary acceptance is given by the historian Lamprecht 1905.1 l8ff and esp. 123.
'rigins and Principles of World Art History-1900 (and 2000) 75
s c i e n c e s " o f the future.
I n s u m : if it w e r e n a t u r a l f o r the h u m a n " p s y c h e " t o p r o d u c e art, as the n e w a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l research tried t o d e m o n s t r a t e , o n l y a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f all the p r o d u c t s o f art w o r l d w i d e — t h e "art o f all t i m e s a n d p e o p l e s " — c o u l d d e l i v e r definitive c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s a n d f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s o f art in its entirety. T h i s p a v e d the w a y t o a central m o t i v a t i o n f o r w o r l d art h i s t o r y a r o u n d 1900. It also o n c e again m a k e s it a p p a r e n t that it w a s a specific c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , p s y c h o l o g y a n d discussions a b o u t cultural e v o l u t i o n in G e r m a n y w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d the p o s i t i o n s in the n e w Kunstwissenschaft. A n o t h e r strand o f a r g u m e n t s led to t h e s a m e result: G e r m a n art h i s t o r y in t h e late n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c o u l d s e e m i n g l y o n l y s u c c e e d as a " s c i e n c e " in t h e c a n o n o f u n i v e r s i t y fields — t h a t is, as a discipline e x p l a i n i n g the rules a n d f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s o f all c o n n e c t i o n s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s in a r t — b y a d o p t i n g t h e n e w e m p i r i c a l a n d i n d u c t i v e m e t h o d s o f the n a t u r a l sciences. T h i s late, l a w - o r i e n t e d o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f artistic p r o d u c t i o n , r e c e p t i o n , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t c o u l d o n l y b e a c h i e v e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f a u n i v e r s a l h u m a n p s y c h e . N o w , in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e these " b a s i c s " f r o m the m i l l e n n i a o f cultural histories, t h e art o f " p r i m i t i v e s " — n a m e l y , c h i l d r e n , p r e h i s t o r i c a n d i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s — s u d d e n l y a c q u i r e d a central interest. H e n c e w o r l d art h i s t o r y r e c e i v e d a s e c o n d decisive i m p u l s e f r o m the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d institutional crisis o f the discip
line in the late n i n e t e e n t h century. T h i s is n o t t o say, o f course, that t h e " c o l o n i a l i n t e r e s t s " s h o u l d b e d i s m i s s e d f r o m their c l a i m t o b e a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r — e s p e c i a l l y since e x p e d i t i o n s a n d c o l o n i e s p r o v i d e d t h e m a t e r i a l f o r s t u d y i n g the art o f w o r l d peoples.
" P R I M I T I V E A R T " A N D T H E S U R M O U N T I N G O F " O L D E U R O P E A N P R E J U D I C E S "
F o l l o w i n g this b r i e f s k e t c h o f the p r i n c i p a l lines o f t h o u g h t , h o w d i d t h e art historical d i s c u s s i o n g o i n t o d e t a i l ? T h r e e p r e l i m i n a r y r e m a r k s are n e c e s s a r y t o set the stage.
First o f all, t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n " p r i n c i p l e t h i n k i n g " a n d t h e " a r t historical discussion in d e t a i l " is o n l y n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e n o n e o f the texts I discuss b e l o w really d e v e l o p s t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s I h a v e laid o u t a b o v e g i v i n g d u e w e i g h t t o their full i m p l i c a tions. N o n e t h e less, all these texts, e v e n if it is n o t o b v i o u s t h e y d o r e l a t e directly t o this d i s c u s s i o n , at least a l l u d e u n m i s t a k e a b l y to t h e s e " p s y c h o l o g i c a l " t h e o r i e s , w h i c h s e e m t o h a v e b e e n d e l i v e r e d t h r o u g h v a r i o u s , w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d channels. T h e r e f o r e , the c o n t e m p o r a r y " h o r i z o n o f d i s c o u r s e " in this case m u s t be r e c o n s t r u c t e d ; this lack o f a n y o b v i o u s , direct c o n n e c t i o n m a y also b e o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s these texts h a v e r e c e i v e d s o little a t t e n t i o n o v e r the years.
T h e i d e a o f u n d e r t a k i n g research i n t o t h e art o f all c u l tures w i t h o u t a n y c o m p a r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n w a s f o r m u l a t e d b y • a u t h o r s w h o w i l l b e d e s i g n a t e d " r e l a t i v i s t s " in this d i s c u s s i o n . T h e i r
76 World Art Studies I Historiography
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a l w a y s relate t o o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y art historical reflections o n n o n - E u r o p e a n art. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e t w o a d d i t i o n a l alternatives — n a m e l y t h e t h e o r i e s o f " e v o l u t i o n i s t s " a n d " n a t i o n a l i s t s " — a l s o d e s e r v e a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n , e v e n m o r e s o as a clear- cut s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e c a m p s is i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e w i t h out s o m e a m b i g u i t y c r e e p i n g in.
Finally, the n a m e s o f quite a n u m b e r o f art historians a n d authors o f the late n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h century, w h i c h usually o c c u r in art historical discussions o n the b e g i n n i n g s o f a literary a n d scientific e s t i m a t i o n o f n o n - E u r o p e a n art, will be m e n tioned o n l y in passing. T h i s is not to d e n y the r e l e v a n c e o f E d m o n d de G o n c o u r t , A b y W a r b u r g . R o g e r Fry, G u i l l a u m e A p o l l i n a i r e , Carl E i n s t e i n a n d W i l h e l m W o r r i n g e r , a m o n g others, for o f f e r i n g i m p o r t a n t aspects for a n e w v i e w o n w o r l d art. In t h e c o n t e x t o f a psychic c o n c e p t i o n o f artistic p r o d u c t i o n w o r l d w i d e , h o w e v e r , they d o n o t o c c u p y a central p o s i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , it s e e m s j u s t i f i a b l e that this article c o n c e n t r a t e p r i m a r i l y o n the lesser k n o w n writers w h o h a v e p l e a d e d m o s t explicitly for a w o r l d w i d e art h i s t o r y a n d the e n d o f E u r o c e n t r i c aesthetic categories, a n d w h o h a v e antici
pated s o m e o f the central claims m a d e in p r e s e n t - d a y discussions with their d e m a n d s f o r a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e n e w a l o f the s u b j e c t o f art history. A l l that c a n b e d o n e is t o a c k n o w l e d g e that, b e c a u s e these texts b o t h c o v e r m a n y different subjects a n d w e r e p u b l i s h e d over a l o n g t i m e p e r i o d (c. 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 3 0 ) . the s e l e c t i o n h e r e c o u l d quite d e f i n i t e l y b e e x p a n d e d .
T h e art historical " e v o l u t i o n i s t s " p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s as the successors t o the a g e - o l d theories o n the historical p r o g r e s s o f humanity, w h i c h w e r e f o r m u l a t e d m o s t c o g e n t l y by H e g e l a n d which had a l r e a d y led t o the situation that, in F r a n z K u g l e r ' s Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte in 1842, for the first t i m e n o n - E u r o pean art h a d r e c e i v e d an astonishingly " o b j e c t i v e " a p p r e c i a t i o n in the c o n t e x t o f an " e n t i r e art history."1 7 Just in this p e r i o d , t h e n e w scientific classificatory systems, especially D a r w i n - i n s p i r e d t h e ories, o f f e r e d a r o l e - m o d e l w h i c h w a s also e m i n e n t l y s u i t a b l e for arranging w o r k s o f art a c c o r d i n g to m o r p h o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d in s e q u e n c e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s was u n d e r l i n e d b y the fact that the m a j o r i t y o f " p r i m i t i v e a r t " k n o w n in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y consisted o f o r n a m e n t s , w h i c h c o u l d be arranged a n d illustrated particularly well in series set closely together. R a l p h N i c h o l s o n W o r n u m ' s Analysis of Ornament o f 1856 a n d O w e n J o n e s ' s Gram
mar ofOrnament f r o m t h e s a m e y e a r w e r e b o t h b o r n o f a t t e m p t s to detect e t e r n a l l y stable f o u n d a t i o n a l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r i n ciples f r o m a c o m p l e t e c o m p a r i s o n o f w o r l d o r n a m e n t (as the b a sic " l a n g u a g e " o f all d i f f e r e n t styles)."1 In 1861 S e m p e r p r e s e n t e d his most a u t h o r i t a t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n o f the origins a n d early f u n c tionalist d e v e l o p m e n t s o f art f o r m s a n d o r n a m e n t s , w h i c h he ar
gued begin w i t h a b s t r a c t - g e o m e t r i c f o r m s a n d e n d w i t h the m o s t naturalist o r n a m e n t . A s e a r l y as 1879, in a short p a p e r e n t i t l e d the Anfdnge der Kunst:anthropologische Beitrdge zur Geschichte des
1 7
F o r t h e c o n t e x t o f K u g l e r s e e L o c h e r 2 0 0 1 . 2 0 8 - 6 6 ; o n a r t h i s t o r i c a l i d e a s o f p r o g r e s s H a z a n 1 9 0 8 : E r r i n g t o n 1 9 9 7 . O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s c o n t e x t is a l s o t h e h i s t o r y o f " w o r l d a r c h i t e c t u r e " ; p u b l i s h e d u n d e r d i f f e r e n t t i t l e s a n d i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s s i n c e 1 8 5 5 t h i s w a s i n i t i a l l y d o n e b y J a m e s F e r g u s s o n . w h o i n c l u d e d a n i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r
" E t h n o g r a p h y a s A p p l i e d t o A r c h i t e c t u r a l A r t " ( F e r g u s s o n 1 8 6 5 - 1 8 6 7 , 4 2 - 7 4 ) -
1 8
I n F r a n c e , s l i g h t l y l a t e r C h a r l e s B l a n c c o m m e n c e d p u b l i s h i n g h i s p r o j e c t o f c o m p i l i n g a Grammaire des arts: f o r a c o n c i s e s u m m a r y o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s s e e L o c h e r 2 0 0 1 . 3 2 8 - 7 8 .
" g i n s a n d P r i n c i p l e s o f W o r l d A r t H i s t o r y - 1 9 0 0 ( a n d 2 0 0 0 ) 7 7
19
Ranke 1879; for an explicit, if some
what critical discussion of Semper see pp. 16-24.
However. Ranke later disputed the
"dignity of science" of non-European anthropology, see Zimmerman 1998.
35ff and 87.
20
A. Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers 1874-1875 contributions are reprinted in Pitt- Rivers 1906: Balfour 1890 and Balfour 1893; taking the art of New-Guinea as his starting point. Haddon 1895,3o6ff:
"There are two ways in which art may be studied —the aesthetic and the scien
tific. The former deals with all manifes
tations of art from a purely subjective point of view, and classifies objects according to certain so-called 'canons of art." These may be the generally rec
ognised rules of the country or race to which the critic belongs, and may even have the sanction of antiquity, or they may be due to the idiosyncrasy of the would-be mentor. In criticizing the art of another country it must be remem
bered that racial tendencies may give such a bias as to render it very difficult to treat foreign art sympathetically.
Western Europe and Japan are cases in point. Dogmatism in aesthetics is absurd, for. after all, the aesthetic sense is largely based upon personal likes and dislikes.... We will now turn to a more promising field of inquiry, and see what can be gained from a scientific treat
ment of art.This naturally falls into two categories, the physical [including:
"psychology"] and the biological."
For a discussion of Haddon's ideas and their transference to all artistic products see Colley March 1896; his ideas on ornament in Colley March 1889. Stolpe's articles of the 1890s are collected in Stolpe 1927.
21
Hildebrand l885;Lange l899,V-XXXI;
the expression "Gesetz der Frontalitat"
is not Lange's own, but was coined by the editor Furtwangler. who regarded its discovery as a "kunstgeschichtliches Resultat ersten Ranges, der Entdeckung eines Naturgesetzes vergleichbar."
22
Hein 1891 was reviewed by Alois Riegl:
Riegl 1892.
23
The best succinct summary of Riegl's thinking is given by Kemp 1990.
Ornaments ( " B e g i n n i n g s o f A r t : A n t h r o l o p o l o g i c a l C o n t r i b u t i o n s to the H i s t o r y o f O r n a m e n t " ) , in M u n i c h the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t J o h a n n e s R a n k e w o u l d a t t e m p t to link these materialist e x p l a n ations to a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l - e t h n o l o g i c a l considerations, based o n the n e w l y p u b l i s h e d materials gathered f r o m all o v e r the world.1 9
H o w e v e r , it was especially in G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d the S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s that unilinear e v o l u t i o n i s m f o u n d its m o s t faithful s u p porters: A u g u s t u s H . L a n e - F o x P i t t - R i v e r s , H e n r y B a l f o u r , H . C o l l e y M a r c h , A l f r e d C. H a d d o n a n d K . H j a l m a r Stolpe.2 0 In o p p o s i t i o n to S e m p e r and his followers, they f o r m u l a t e d an early history o f o r n a m e n t a t i o n w h i c h led f r o m naturalistic t o abstract f o r m s ( " d e g e n e r a t i o n t h e o r y " ) . A t this p o i n t , at least t w o Scandi
n a v i a n scholars s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d briefly: the S w e d i s h histor
ian H a n s O. H i l d e b r a n d . a specialist in early history w h o published drawings and carvings of the Inuit p e o p l e s in 1883, a n d f o r e m o s t a m o n g t h e m , the D a n i s h archaeologist Julius L a n g e w h o was o n e of the first to c o m p a r e not m e r e l y o r n a m e n t s but the m o n u m e n t a l sculpture o f several " p r i m i t i v e cultures," including G r e e k archaic sculpture, a n d w h o c o n c l u d e d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y that the " l a w of f r o n t a l i t y " had b e e n a universal principle o f f o r m at this p o i n t in plastic representation.2 1 Nevertheless, the decisive aspect in this case is that i n v a r i a b l y in all these e v o l u t i o n i s t theories, the analyses of o r n a m e n t s a n d o t h e r art f o r m s s u p p l i e d interesting i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g early h u m a n history, but such artefacts w e r e always t h o u g h t to be h o p e l e s s l y i n f e r i o r to later products. O r n a m e n t a l d e c o r a t i o n s especially w e r e regarded s i m p l y as craft objects a n d e v e n seen partly as a " p i c t o g r a p h i c writing s y s t e m , " but basic
ally n o t r e g a r d e d as "real art."
A s an o b j e c t i o n to this, it seems to h a v e b e e n a trait of G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g e t h n o l o g i c a l research t o e m p h a s i z e the artistic character of o r n a m e n t s e v e n in the m o s t " p r i m i t i v e l e v e l " of cultures. In 1890-1891, A l o i s R . H e i n explicitly p o i n t e d out the aes
thetic qualities o f " s a v a g e " o r n a m e n t a n d distinguished b e t w e e n the material culture of a civilization and the quality o f its art (par
tially this idea h a d already b e e n w i d e s p r e a d earlier, for instance, in O w e n J o n e s a n d R a l p h N i c h o l s o n W o r n u m ) .2 2 O n l y t w o years lat
er, in 1893, A l o i s R i e g l p r e s e n t e d his g r o u n d b r e a k i n g criticism o f S e m p e r i a n m a t e r i a l i s m and o f f e r e d a n e w account o f the histor
ical d e v e l o p m e n t o f ( a n c i e n t ) o r n a m e n t . A s is well k n o w n , slightly later, in Spatrdmische Kunst-Industrie (Late Roman Art Industry, I 9 0 i) , h e also i n t r o d u c e d the concept of " K u n s t w o l l e n , " a p s y c h o logical force b e h i n d all artistic d e v e l o p m e n t s ( a n d o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d by the theories o f Vdlkerpsychologie)P Since these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d e m a n d e d the a b a n d o n i n g o f n o r m a t i v e aesthetic categories a n d e v o l u t i o n i s t imaginings of art's d e v e l o p m e n t , R i e g l at this p o i n t had already b e c o m e a "relativist."
N o w a brief w o r d n e e d s t o be said a b o u t the "nationalists."
O b v i o u s l y it w a s an easy step f r o m the c o n c e p t i o n o f an ever m o r e perfect series o f stages in art f o r m s and cultures to " n a t i o n a l i s t "
78 World Art Studies I Historiography
( a n d racist) schemes. In the G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g w o r l d , since the e f
florescence o f P a n - G e r m a n i s m a n d volkisch m o v e m e n t s in t h e 1890s, s o m e scholars h a d p o s t u l a t e d the s u p e r i o r i t y o f ( G e r m a n - ) A r y a n art t o " p r i m i t i v e " a r t . T h e r u b w a s that a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t also h a d t o b e b r o u g h t t o bear in o r d e r to discredit the artistic trad
itions o f a n c i e n t Italy a n d G r e e c e , p r e v i o u s l y c e l e b r a t e d as t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d p e r f e c t i o n / a p o t h e o s i s o f W e s t e r n art. A s t h e r e w a s little t o criticize in t h e p r o d u c t s , instead o f v i l i f y i n g t h e m , writers contested their priority. T h e r e f o r e , t h e y d i r e c t e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e N e a r E a s t , t h e " c r a d l e o f the A r y a n s , " a n d a t t e m p t e d to l o c a t e t h e origin o f central art f o r m s there — c o n s e q u e n t l y , in a s e e m i n g l y p a r a d o x i c a l f a s h i o n , a n e w p o i n t o f v i e w o n n o n - E u r o p e a n art tailor
ed to n a t i o n a l i s t p u r p o s e s e m e r g e d . A n early e x a m p l e o f this can be f o u n d in t h e writings o f Friedrich S e e s s e l b e r g in 1897.24 T h e b e s t - k n o w n e x a m p l e is certainly J o s e f S t r z y g o w s k i , b e g i n n i n g w i t h his 1901 p u b l i c a t i o n o f Orient unci Rom. H i s interest in n o n - E u r o p e a n art w o u l d later b e e m p l o y e d for n a t i o n a l i s t e n d s ( J a g g i 2002;
K i t e 2003).
T h e t h i r d a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t g r o u p w a s that o f t h e " r e l a tivists." I n 1875, G e o r g S c h w e i n f u r t h w a s a l r e a d y i m p l y i n g that the
" c i v i l i z a t i o n " o f t h e w o r l d b y the W e s t c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a d o u b l e - e d g e d n a r r a t i v e — o f progress, but also as a history o f loss:
" S p e e d is o f t h e essence as the destructive t e n d e n c y w h i c h is generated w h e n o u r industrial p r o d u c t i o n s o b t r u d e t h e m s e l v e s u p o n all t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e earth, threatens, s o o n e r or later, to s w e e p a w a y t h e last vestiges o f i n d i g e n o u s arts, e v e n in A f r i c a . "2 5
Y e t s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s , t h e technically a d v a n c e d w o r k s o f art f r o m B e n i n — l o o t e d d u r i n g a B r i t i s h p e n a l e x p e d i t i o n in 1897 — not o n l y d r a m a t i c a l l y justified S c h w e i n f u r t h ' s l a m e n t , t h e y also c o n c l u s i v e l y upset ideas a b o u t " p r i m i t i v e " A f r i c a n art.
T h e real d i s c u s s i o n was actually o p e n e d b y an e x c e p t i o n a l intellectual a c h i e v e m e n t in 1894: the 3 0 0 - p a g e treatise by E r n s t G r o s s e o n Die Anfdnge der Kunst(The Beginnings of Art). In c o n trast t o its title, in reality it presents itself as an a t t e m p t to f o u n d anew the d i s c i p l i n e o f Kunstwissenschaft o n a strictly o b j e c t i v e a n d scientific basis as a k i n d o f " c o m p a r a t i v e e t h n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d applied t o art h i s t o r y " ; this revised Kunstwissenschaft a s p i r e d t o analyse in o r d e r t o m a k e " i n d i v i d u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s " its p r i m a r y goals (p. 9), but t o d e f i n e t h e o v e r a r c h i n g c u l t u r a l - h i s t o r i c a l , a n d s o c i o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l h y p o t h e s e s p e r t a i n i n g to t h e art f o r m s o f b o d y d e c o r a t i o n , o r n a m e n t , sculpture, dance, p o e t r y , a n d m u s i c , all objects w h i c h G r o s s e r e g a r d e d — a t least in their e a r l y stages — as having b e e n h e a v i l y d e t e r m i n e d b y their s o c i o e c o n o m i c f u n c tions.26 B e h i n d all this o f c o u r s e lies D a r w i n ' s e v o l u t i o n i s t t h e o r y :
" T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f art, t o o , is a c c o m p l i s h e d u n d e r the great law o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n " (p. 14). G r o s s e a r g u e d that " h u m a n i t y ...
by n o m e a n s m o v e s a l o n g a single line in a single d i r e c t i o n ; r a t h e r , as different as the living c o n d i t i o n s o f p e o p l e s are, s o d i f f e r e n t too are their p a t h s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s . " A n d t h e r e f o r e " t h e - p r e s e n t
24
Seesselberg 1897 is most explicit in the " C o n c l u s i o n , " p. 141; for the origins of " n o r t h e r n " and " s o u t h e r n "
E u r o p e a n art in N e a r Eastern " w o r l d a r t " see pp. 4-15.
25
S c h w e i n f u r t h 1875. X ; the b o o k has a dedication " S e i n e m vielverchrten F r e u n d e Prof. D r . A . Bastian. d e m G r t i n d e r der D e u t s c h e n Gesellschaft zur E r f o r s c h u n g A e q u a t o r i a l - A f r i k a s . "
For the ( G e r m a n ) tradition of criticiz
ing Eurocentric historiography and Western " m a t e r i a l i s m " see M a r c h a n d 1997-
26
G r o s s e 1894: the English translation of 1897 went through five m o r e editions in 1898,1899,1900,1914 and 1928:3 French translation a p p e a r e d in 1902 u n d e r the title Les debuts de Van.
A short discussion o f the merits and ( e v o l u t i o n i s t ) limitations of G r o s s e ' s t h e o r y is in G e r b r a n d s 1957,47ff.
'rigins a n d P r i n c i p l e s o f W o r l d A r t H i s t o r y - 1 9 0 0 ( a n d 2000)
27
Schmarsow 1907,310-12. A l s o relevant in this context are Schmarsow 1910 and Schmarsow 1919. For the tradition of G e r m a n anthropology to collect materials and facts,without theoretical a priori" sec Z i m m e r m a n 1998,54-64.
28
Verworn 1907,5-7. For Hegel see Locher 2001, 206.
29
Worringer 1919 [1907],70ff. O n the same pages, he praises Japanese art. See also his later rejection of the idea of
"art'1 as a human universal in Worringer 1956: whereas in Worringer 1911,6-9, he argued against the d o m i n a n c e of a ( E u r o p e a n ) canon of classical beauty.
h i s t o r y o f art [has] m a d e the field o f its research t o o n a r r o w t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f f o r e i g n a r t s " (p. 2). " T h e s c i e n c e o f art s h o u l d e x t e n d its r e s e a r c h e s t o all p e o p l e s ; b u t it s h o u l d a p p l y itself especially t o t h o s e g r o u p s w h i c h it has f o r m e r l y m o s t n e g l e c t e d . A l l f o r m s o f art are e q u a l l y e n d o w e d w i t h a c l a i m t o their o w n intrinsic i n t e r e s t "
(p. 23). O n c e a g a i n t h e s u m m a r y states t h e central i d e a o f artistic p o t e n t i a l as a h u m a n u n i v e r s a l : " O u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n has p r o v e d w h a t aesthetics h a s h i t h e r t o o n l y asserted: that t h e r e are, for t h e h u m a n race, at least, g e n e r a l l y e f f e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s g o v e r n i n g aes
thetic pleasure, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y g e n e r a l l y v a l i d laws o f artistic c r e a t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t t o this f u n d a m e n t a l a g r e e m e n t , t h e differ
ences b e t w e e n p r i m i t i v e a n d higher art f o r m s a p p e a r t o b e m o r e o f a q u a n t i t a t i v e t h a n a q u a l i t a t i v e sort. T h e e m o t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d in p r i m i t i v e art are n a r r o w a n d r u d e , its m a t e r i a l s are scanty, its f o r m s are p o o r a n d c o a r s e , but in its essential m o t i v e s , m e a n s , a n d a i m s t h e art o f earliest t i m e s is o n e w i t h the art o f all t i m e s " (p. 307).
T h e n e w i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o w o r l d art r e a c h e d a first c l i m a x in 1907: in this y e a r A u g u s t S c h m a r s o w tried t o d e v i s e a first sys
t e m a t i c s u m m a t i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g o f Volkerpsychologie a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y f o r a n e w Kunstwissenschaft.27 The p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e a d o p t e d b y S c h m a r s o w w a s G r o s s e ' s b o o k , w h i c h h e l i n k e d w i t h the t h e o r i e s o f Y r j o H i r n (The Origins of Art, 1900) a n d W i l h e l m W u n d t (Volkerpsychologie, 1900). T o a v o i d the p r o b l e m o f h o w t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n art a n d o t h e r artefacts m a d e b y these peoples.
S c h m a r s o w p l e a d e d f o r an u n p r e j u d i c e d a n d general i n c l u s i o n o f all h a n d i c r a f t s f r o m a culture. I n t h e s a m e year, M a x V e r w o r n d e v e l o p e d t h e p r o g r a m m e o f a n art p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e " p r i m i t i v e s , "
in w h i c h he a l s o m o d i f i e d ( u n c o n s c i o u s l y ? ) a dictum by H e g e l that art c o u l d s o m e t i m e s give t h e d e e p e s t insight i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f a p e o p l e ( o r c o u l d e v e n a l l o w e x c l u s i v e insight if the p e o p l e are illiterate).2 8 F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d b e r e m i n d e d o f t h e fact that in 1907 W i l h e l m W o r r i n g e r ' s e n o r m o u s l y influential P h D
thesis o n Abstraktion and Einfuhlung (Abstraction and Empathy)
w a s p u b l i s h e d ; his w o r k w a s a l s o b a s e d e n t i r e l y o n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l - f o r m a l aesthetics a n d c h a n g e d the g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f abstract f o r m s o f art radically. D e s p i t e his p i o n e e r i n g e f f o r t . W o r r i n g e r c o u l d still c o n t i n u e t o dismiss all p r e h i s t o r i c a n d i n d i g e n o u s arts as " n o t yet really art."2 9 If C a r l E i n s t e i n ' s p u b l i c a t i o n s o n Negerplastik (1915/1920) a n d Afrikanische Plastik ( 1 9 2 1 ) are p o i n t e d o u t at this stage, this is d o n e for r e a s o n s b e y o n d the n e w l y r e s e a r c h e d a n d r e m a r k a b l e f o r m a l analysis o f these w o r k s o f art.
I n d e e d , as o n e o f the first, E i n s t e i n s e e m s t o h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e d a n g e r s o f the p s y c h o l o g i c a l Kunstwissenschaft, b e c a u s e its central t e r m " e m p a t h y " — a g a i n s t all p r e v i o u s i n t e n t i o n s a n d with W o r r i n ger as t h e latest t o m o d i f y it — b e g a n t o b e e n d o w e d w i t h an in
creasingly s u b j e c t i v e - s p e c u l a t i v e c o m p o n e n t ( E i n s t e i n 1981,65ff).
A f t e r 1 9 1 8 — a f t e r t h e eclipse o f I m p e r i a l G e r m a n y a n d the loss o f the c o l o n i e s — t h e d e m a n d s for a w o r l d art h i s t o r y w e r e able t o b e c o m e e v e n m o r e radical. T h e y e a r 1923 s e e m s t o h a v e m a r k e d
80 W o r l d A r t Studies I H i s t o r i o g r a p h y
