2 Investigated insects, investigated localities and research strategy
2.2 Investigated diurnal butterflies
The diurnal butterflies (Lepidoptera) which have been investigated by own observations at one or several localities in the surroundings of Heidelberg include (in alphabetical order of Latin names) the male of the Orange Tip Anthocharis cardamines LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Purple Emperor Apatura iris LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Ringlet Aphantopus hyperantus LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Black-Veined White Aporia crataegi LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Map Butterfly Araschnia levana LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Silver-Washed Fritillary Argynnis paphia LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Clouded Yellow Colias croceus FOURCROY 1785 (Pieridae), the Brimstone Gonepteryx rhamni LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Peacock Butterfly Inachis io LINNAEUS
1758 (Nymphalidae), the Queen of Spain Fritillary Issoria lathonia LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Wall Brown Lasiommata megera LINNAEUS 1767 (Satyridae), the Wood White Leptidea sinapis LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Marbled White Melanargia galathea LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Swallowtail Papilio machaon LINNAEUS 1758 (Papilionidae), the Speckled Wood Pararge aegeria
LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Comma Butterfly Polygonia c-album LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Common Blue Polyommatus icarus ROTTEMBURG 1775 (Lycaenidae), the Black Hairstreak Stry-monidia pruni LINNAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), and the Painted Lady Vanessa cardui LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae). Some aspects of the Small Tortoiseshell Aglais urticae LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae) are also outlined.
In addition to the afore reported diurnal butterflies from which I have documented the results of my own observations at one or several localities in the surroundings of Heidelberg, various examples of mass occurrences of diurnal butterflies have been taken from the literature. Apart from the above mentioned diurnal butterflies where the comments are based on own observations, examples of mass occurrences that are based on literature evaluation are also presented for (in alphabetical order of Latin names) the Lesser Purple Emperor Apatura ilia SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER
1775) (Nymphalidae), the Brown Argus Aricia agestis SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER
1775) (Lycaenidae), the Dark Green Fritillary Argynnis aglaja LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Niobe Fritillary Argynnis niobe LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Cranberry Fritillary Boloria aquilonaris STICHEL 1908 (Nymphalidae), the Violet Fritillary Boloria dia LINNAEUS 1767 (Nympha-lidae), the Bog Fritillary Boloria eunomia ESPER 1799 (Nymphalidae), the Pearl-Bordered Fritillary Boloria euphrosyne LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Small Pearl-Bordered Fritillary Boloria selene SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Nymphalidae), the Lesser Marbled Fritil-lary Brenthis ino SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Nymphalidae), the Great Ban-ded Grayling Brintesia circe FABRICIUS 1775 (Satyridae), the Geranium Bronze Cacyreus marshalli BUTLER 1898 (Lycaenidae), the Green Hairstreak Callophrys rubi LINNAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Mallow Skipper Carcharodus alceae ESPER 1780 (Hesperiidae), the Marbled Skipper Carcharodus lavaterae (ESPER 1783) (Hesperiidae), the Chequered Skipper Carterocephalus palaemon PALLAS
1771 (Hesperiidae), the Holly Blue Celastrina argiolus LINNAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Hermit Chazara briseis LINNAEUS 1764 (Satyridae), the Pearly Heath Coenonympha arcania LINNAEUS 1761 (Satyridae), the Chestnut Heath Coenonympha glycerion BORKHAUSEN 1788 (Satyridae), the Small Heath Coenonympha pamphilus LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Large Heath Coenonympha tullia (MÜLLER 1764) (Satyridae), the Pale Clouded Yellow Colias hyale LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Moorland Clouded Yellow Colias palaeno LINNAEUS 1761 (Pieridae), the Little Blue Cupido mini-mus FUESSLY 1775 (Lycaenidae), the Scotch Argus Erebia aethiops ESPER 1777 (Satyridae), the Ar-ran Brown Erebia ligea LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Woodland Ringlet Erebia medusa SCHIFFER
-MÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Satyridae), the Dingy Skipper Erynnis tages LINNAEUS
1758 (Hesperiidae), the Marsh Fritillary Euphydryas aurinia ROTTEMBURG 1775 (Nymphalidae), the Short-Tailed Blue Everes argiades PALLAS 1771 (Lycaenidae), the Green-Underside Blue Glauco-psyche alexis PODA 1761 (Lycaenidae), the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary Hamearis lucina LINNAEUS
1758 (Nemeobiidae), the Silver-Spotted Skipper Hesperia comma LINNAEUS 1758 (Hesperiidae), the Large Chequered Skipper Heteropterus morpheus PALLAS 1771 (Hesperiidae), the Rock Grayling Hipparchia alcyone SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Satyridae), the Woodland Grayling Hipparchia fagi (SCOPOLI 1763) (Satyridae), the Grayling Hipparchia semele LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Scarce Swallowtail Iphiclides podalirius SCOPOLI 1763 (Papilionidae), the Long-Tailed Blue Lampides boeticus LINNAEUS 1767 (Lycaenidae), the Large Wall Brown Lasiom-mata maera LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the White Admiral Limenitis camilla LINNAEUS 1763 (Nym-phalidae), the Poplar Admiral Limenitis populi LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Woodland Brown Lopinga achine (SCOPOLI 1763) (Satyridae), the Purple-Shot Copper Lycaena alciphron ROTTEMBURG
1775 (Lycaenidae), the Large Copper Lycaena dispar HAWORTH 1803 (Lycaenidae), the Violet Cop-per Lycaena helle SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Lycaenidae), the Purple-Edged Copper Lycaena hippothoe LINNAEUS 1761 (Lycaenidae), the Small Copper Lycaena phlaeas LIN
-NAEUS 1761 (Lycaenidae), the Sooty Copper Lycaena tityrus (PODA 1761) (Lycaenidae), the Scarce Copper Lycaena virgaureae (LINNAEUS) 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Large Blue Maculinea arion LIN
-NAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Alcon Blue Maculinea alcon SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜL
-LER 1775) (Lycaenidae), the Dusky Large Blue Maculinea nausithous BERGSTRÄSSER 1779 (Lycaeni-dae), the Rebel´s Blue Maculinea rebeli HIRSCHKE 1904 (Lycaenidae), the Scarce Large Blue Macu-linea teleius BERGSTRÄSSER 1779 (Lycaenidae), the Meadow Brown Maniola jurtina LINNAEUS 1758 (Satyridae), the Heath Fritillary Melitaea athalia ROTTEMBURG 1775 (Nymphalidae), the Nickerl´s Fritillary Melitaea aurelia NICKERL 1850 (Nymphalidae), the Glanville Fritillary Melitaea cinxia LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the False Heath Fritillary Melitaea diamina LANG 1789 (Nymphali-dae), the Spotted Fritillary Melitaea didyma ESPER 1779 (Nymphalidae), the Sloe Hairstreak Nord-mannia acaciae FABRICIUS 1787 (Lycaenidae), the Ilex Hairstreak Nordmannia ilicis ESPER 1779 (Lycaenidae), the Camberwell Beauty Nymphalis antiopa LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Large Tortoiseshell Nymphalis polychloros LINNAEUS 1758 (Nymphalidae), the Large Skipper Ochlodes venatus BREMER & GREY 1852 (Hesperiidae), the Apollo Parnassius apollo LINNAEUS 1758 (Papilio-nidae), the Clouded Apollo Parnassius mnemosyne LINNAEUS 1758 (Papilionidae), the Large White Pieris brassicae LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Green-Veined White Pieris napi LINNAEUS 1758 (Pie-ridae), the Small White Pieris rapae LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Silver-Studded Blue Plebejus ar-gus LINNAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Reverdin´s Blue Plebejus argyrognomon BERGSTRÄSSER 1779 (Lycaenidae), the Amanda´s Blue Plebicula amanda SCHNEIDER 1792 (Lycaenidae), the Turquoise Blue Plebicula dorylas SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Lycaenidae), the Adonis Blue Polyommatus bellargus ROTTEMBURG 1775 (Lycaenidae), the Chalkhill Blue Polyommatus cori-don (PODA 1761) (Lycaenidae), the Mazarine Blue Polyommatus semiargus ROTTEMBURG 1775 (Ly-caenidae), the Bath White Pontia daplidice LINNAEUS 1758 (Pieridae), the Eastern Bath White Pon-tia edusa (FABRICIUS 1776) (Pieridae), the Baton Blue Pseudophilotes baton BERGSTRÄSSER 1779 (Ly-caenidae), the Large Grizzled Skipper Pyrgus alveus HÜBNER 1803 (Hesperiidae), the Safflower Skipper Pyrgus fritillarius PODA 1761 (Hesperiidae), the Grizzled Skipper Pyrgus malvae (LINNAEUS
1758) (Hesperiidae), the Gatekeeper Pyronia tithonus LINNAEUS 1771 (Satyridae), the Purple Hair-streak Quercusia quercus LINNAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Chequered Blue Scolitantides orion PAL
-LAS 1771 (Lycaenidae), the Red Underwing Skipper Spialia sertorius HOFFMANNSEGG 1804 (Hesperii-dae), the Blue-Spot Hairstreak Strymonidia spini SCHIFFERMÜLLER (in DENIS & SCHIFFERMÜLLER 1775) (Lycaenidae), the White-Letter Hairstreak Strymonidia w-album (KNOCH 1782) (Lycaenidae), the Lang´s Short-Tailed Blue Syntarucus pirithous LINNAEUS 1767 (Lycaenidae), the Brown Hairstreak Thecla betulae LINNAEUS 1758 (Lycaenidae), the Lulworth Skipper Thymelicus acteon ROTTEMBURG
1775 (Hesperiidae), the Essex Skipper Thymelicus lineola OCHSENHEIMER 1808 (Hesperiidae), and the Small Skipper Thymelicus sylvestris PODA 1761 (Hesperiidae).
In the context of the evaluation of the relationships of swarm phases, mass flights and peak occur-rences of diurnal butterflies with the new moon and full moon phases of the lunar cycle, comments are also given on the following species: the Canarian Large White Pieris cheiranthi (HÜBNER 1808) (Pieridae), the Indian Red Admiral Vanessa indica (HERBST 1794) (Nymphalidae) and the Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus LINNAEUS 1758 (Danaidae).
The various examples of mass occurrences of diurnal and nocturnal butterflies which have been taken from the literature have mainly been retrieved and interpreted from the annual and topical re-ports in the journals Atalanta (Zeitschrift der Deutschen Forschungszentrale für Schmetterlingswan-derungen) and Melanargia (Nachrichten der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Rheinisch-Westfälischer Lepido-pterologen) as well as from a selection of papers in other journals. The interpretation and discussion of mass occurrences of diurnal and nocturnal butterflies according to the review of the literature has predominantly been restricted to examples from localities in Germany and contains only subordi-nately also some cases from countries adjacent to Germany. A more comprehensive literature sur-vey of examples of mass occurrences of beetles, butterflies, dragonflies, damselflies and other in-sects has been beyond the limit of this volume and has therefore been postponed to a future compi-lation and evaluation of observations and reports of swarm phases and mass flights of various in-sects. Numerous examples of mass flights of diurnal and nocturnal butterflies from the older
litera-ture are compiled in WILLIAMS (1930), FRAENKEL (1932) and WILLIAMS, COCKBILL, GIBBS & DOW NES
(1942). The English and French names of the aforementioned diurnal butterflies have been taken from HIGGINS & RILEY (1971) and WROBEL (2000) as well as from http://en.wikipedia.org, http://fr.wiki pedia.org, http://www.leps.it, http://www.ukbutterflies.co.uk and http://www.uk sa fa - ri.com where descriptions and photographs of every species are available.
In addition to the aforementioned Palaearctic diurnal butterflies, I have also had the opportunity to observe some examples of Nearctic diurnal butterflies. I have seen numerous individuals of the Eastern Tiger Swallowtail Papilio glaucus LINNAEUS 1758 (Papilionidae) during a geological excur-sion to the Grand Canyon in Arizona in the western part of the United States of America in summer 1982, and abundant individuals of small brown satyrid butterflies during a visit of Nuevo Laredo and Monterrey in the northeastern part of Mexico in autumn 1989.