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An Exploration of the Availability of Internet and the Possibility of its Provision to Schools of Swaziland Through the Use of Geographic Information Systems
A Thesis Submitted in the fulfilment of Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Of
Salzburg University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa Study Centre
By:
Siphiwe Lynette Maphalala
March 2012
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Declaration of Authorship
This thesis contains no material which has been previously accepted for the awarding of any degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person except where reference is made in the text of the thesis.
Name: Siphiwe Lynette Maphalala
Signed: ……….
Date: ………
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Dedication
To Eagle’s Wings Ministries International family, my husband Barney Mohammed and my daughter Lindelwe
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Acknowledgements
To God Almighty be all the glory, honour and adoration. I give thanks to Him who always causes us to triumph in his Name. I would never have made it this far if it hadn’t been for Your favour and awesomely unfailing love. I am appreciative to You for the overflowing life and good health throughout this project. Surely You are the way, the truth and the life.
To Ann and Werner Olivier, I have been tremendously blessed to have you as my supervisors. Your research expertise, professionalism and efficiency in giving prompt feedback made the task bearable and manageable. Thank you for your unremitting collegial approach, encouragement and non- threatening support towards completion of this dissertation.
Appreciations go to Sizwe Mabaso of the Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning, at the University of Swaziland, whose invaluable support and guidance have broadened my horizon in the field of practical GIS.
My sincere thanks go to Mcebo Sigudla (Engineer – GIS, SPTC), for allowing me to expand my expertise in the field of GIS profession, my humble appreciation for also inspiring me personally.
You are not just a supervisor, but a teacher, mentor and a well trusted colleague. Special thanks go to the following colleagues at SPTC who were very supportive: Barney Mohammed, Happiness Shabangu, Internet and data teams, the GIS staff and Nelisiwe Ndlela.
My modest gratitude goes to the Ministry of Education, Department of Census and Statistics, Computer Education Trust Commission and the Surveyor General’s office for opening double doors for me.
My family, you have been a pillar of strength every step of the way, thank you. To my spiritual parents (Apostle C. Samunenge and Prophetess Sibongile), your prayers and support have carried me this far. For what you have sown in my research, may it return to you a hundredfold.
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Abstract
Countries of the world have moved their education systems towards technology-based education.
Swaziland, like the rest of the world, has transformed her education system by migrating from General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) O’ Level curriculum to International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE). This is a technology-based curriculum that requires participation from both teachers and students. The curriculum brings with it pre-vocational subjects such as Computers, Information Communication Technologies, Computer hardware and the Internet, which is important for studying and subject preparation. The main objective of this study was to explore Swaziland Posts and Telecommunication Corporation (SPTC) network coverage for the provision of Internet services in schools of Swaziland using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques, methods and operations. It aimed at evaluating Internet connectivity to schools in their different categories and regions.
GIS, spatial analysis, Internet, computer, school, IGCSE curriculum, Telecommunication network coverage,
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Table of Contents
List of Tables ... viii
List of Figures ... ix
Acronyms ... xi
Chapter 1: Introduction ... 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Aims and Objectives ... 2
1.2.1 Main Objectives ... 2
1.2.2 The specific objectives ... 2
1.3 Assumption of the Study ... 2
1.4 Intended Audience ... 3
1.5 Thesis Summary structure ... 3
1.6 Conclusion ... 4
Chapter 2: Description of Study Area ... 5
2.1 Background ... 5
2.2 Population ... 7
2.3 Climate, Economy and Vegetation/Agriculture ... 8
2.4 Literacy Levels ... 8
2.5 Conclusion ... 11
Chapter 3: A Literature Review ... 12
3.1 Background ... 12
3.2 Education in Swaziland ... 12
3.3 Introduction of International General Certificate of Secondary Education in Swaziland (IGCSE) ... 13
3.4 Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Swaziland ... 15
3.5 Description of Internet ... 16
3.6 Adoption and Use of Internet in Schools Around the World ... 16
3.7 The Importance of Using Internet in Schools of Swaziland ... 21
3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Internet in schools ... 22
3.9 Technologies for Providing Internet Connectivity in Schools of Swaziland ... 26
3.9.1 The Internet Network Block Diagrams ... 27
3.9.2 Internet Connectivity Technologies ... 28
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3.9.3 Wired or Fixed Technologies ... 28
3.9.4 Analogue Dial-up ... 28
3.9.5 ISDN ... 29
3.9.6 ADSL Coverage in Swaziland ... 32
3.9.7 Optical Fibre (Media) ... 35
3.9.8 Wireless Technologies for providing Internet connectivity ... 37
3.9.9 IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) ... 37
3.9.10 Code Division Multiplex (CDMA) ... 38
3.9.11 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)... 41
3.9.12 Satellite Communication ... 42
3.9.13 Conclusion ... 44
Chapter 4: Methodology-Approach ... 45
4.1 Introduction ... 45
4.2 Research Design ... 45
4.3 Database ... 46
4.4 Telecommunication Network Description ... 47
4.5 Sources of Data ... 49
4.6 Cartographic Model ... 50
4.6.1 Data Collection Methods and Field Research ... 52
4.6.2 GPS Specification ... 52
4.6.3 Data Capturing and Processing ... 52
4.7 Data Analysis ... 53
4.8 Data Quality and Accuracy ... 55
4.9 Data Relevance ... 56
4.10 Error Source Propagation and Uncertainty Handling ... 57
4.11 Data Presentation ... 58
4.12 Conclusion ... 58
Chapter 5: Presentation of Results ... 60
5.1 Introduction ... 60
5.2 Distribution of Schools and SPTC Network Coverage ... 60
5.3 Locating of Schools within SPTC Fixed Network Coverage ... 63
5.4 Internet Connectivity in Schools of Swaziland ... 66
viii 5.5 Broadband (ADSL) and Wireless Network Connectivity in Schools Technologies for achieving more
Internet Connectivity ... 76
5.6 Wireless Technologies for Achieving Internet Connectivity in Schools of Swaziland ... 79
5.7 Status of Schools With Respect to SPTC Fixed and Wireless Network Coverage ... 84
Chapter 6: Discussion of the Results ... 98
6.1 Introduction ... 98
6.2 Schools population and their distribution in Swaziland ... 98
6.2.1 Distribution of schools within SPTC Network Coverage ... 98
6.2.2 Network Coverage in Swaziland ... 101
6.3 Status of internet connectivity in schools of Swaziland... 104
6.3.1 Internet Connectivity in schools of Swaziland ... 104
6.3.2 Reasons for Connecting Internet in Schools of Swaziland ... 107
6.3.4 Computer hardware distribution in Schools of Swaziland ... 110
6.4 Technologies for providing internet connectivity ... 114
6.4.1 ADSL and Wireless Connectivity in Schools ... 114
6.5 Wireless technologies for providing internet connectivity ... 115
6.5.1 CDMA Network Coverage ... 115
6.5.3 Summary ... 123
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations ... 133
7.1 Conclusion ... 133
7.2 Recommendations ... 136
References ... 137
List of Tables Table 1 Summary of Schools per Region ... 11
Table 2 Analogue Dial-Up Pricing ... 29
Table 3 ISDN Pricing ... 31
Table 4 ADSL Pricing ... 34
Table 5 Overall summary of schools' distribution, SPTC network coverage & Internet connectivity ... 95
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Map of Swaziland ... 6
Figure 2: Population pyramid for Swaziland in the year 2007 ... 7
Figure 3: Category of schools in Swaziland ... 10
Figure 4: SPTC fixed line connection block diagram (source, SPTC data section) ... 27
Figure 5: SPTC wireless connectivity diagram ... 27
Figure 6: ADSL Coverage in Swaziland ... 32
Figure 7: Optic Fibre route in Swaziland ... 35
Figure 8: CDMA sites in Swaziland ... 39
Figure 9: Schools attribute data ... 46
Figure 10: Schools attribute data prepared for spatial analysis ... 47
Figure 11: Point to point dedicated link, (source, Walrand 1998) ... 48
Figure 12: Point to point shared links connection, (source Walrand 1998) ... 49
Figure 13: Cartographic Model ... 51
Figure 14: Schools of Swaziland Map ... 61
Figure 15: Fixed Telecommunication network coverage in Swaziland ... 62
Figure 16: Summary chart of distribution o schools in Swaziland ... 63
Figure 17: Schools within fixed telecommunication network coverage in Swaziland ... 64
Figure 18: Schools outside fixed telecommunication network coverage in Swaziland ... 65
Figure 19: Schools with Internet connectivity ... 67
Figure 20: Schools without connectivity in Swaziland ... 68
Figure 21: Schools with Internet used for administration purposes in Swaziland ... 70
Figure 22: Schools with Internet used by both students & teachers in Swaziland ... 71
Figure 23: Schools with computer laboratories in Swaziland ... 73
Figure 24: Schools without computer laboratories ... 74
Figure 25: Schools within network, with computer laboratories but without Internet in Swaziland ... 75
Figure 26: Schools within ADSL coverage in Swaziland ... 77
Figure 27: Schools outside ADSL network coverage in Swaziland ... 78
Figure 28: Schools within CDMA 1X coverage in Swaziland ... 82
Figure 29: Schools within CDMA-EVDO coverage in Swaziland ... 83
Figure 30: Schools within fixed and CDMA coverage in Swaziland ... 85
Figure 31: Schools outside fixed network, yet within CDMA coverage in Swaziland ... 86
Figure 32: Schools within fixed & CDMA coverage, with computer labs but without Internnet connectivity in Swaziland ... 87
Figure 33: Schools outside both fixed network & CDMA coverage ... 89
Figure 34: Schools within WIMAX coverage ... 90
Figure 35: Schools outside all other existing network coverage and within WIMAX coverage ... 92
Figure 36: Schools outside all existing network coverage ... 94
Figure 37: Distribution of schools in Swaziland ... 99
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Figure 38: Distribution of schools in the Manzini region ... 101
Figure 39: Schools located within fixed network coverage in Swaziland ... 102
Figure 40: Schools located outside fixed network coverage ... 103
Figure 41: Shiselweni region schools located outside fixed network ... 104
Figure 42: Schools connected to the Internet in Swaziland ... 105
Figure 43: Schools without Internet connectivity ... 106
Figure 44: Chart showing schools using Internet for administration purposes in Swaziland ... 108
Figure 45: Chart showing schools using Internet for academic purposes in Swaziland ... 109
Figure 46: Graph of schools with Computer laboratories in Swaziland ... 110
Figure 47: Schools within network coverage & computers laboratories but without Internet in Swaziland .... 111
Figure 48: Manzini region schools with computer laboratories but without Internet ... 112
Figure 49: Pie Chart showing schools within CDMA coverage in Swaziland ... 115
Figure 50: Summary Pie chart of schools within CDMA-1X coverage in Swaziland ... 117
Figure 51: Schools within CDMA-EVDO coverage in Swaziland ... 118
Figure 52: Schools within both fixed & CDMA network coverage in Swaziland ... 119
Figure 53: Schools outside fixed network & CDMA coverage in Swaziland ... 120
Figure 54: Pie chart showing schools within WIMAX coverage in Swaziland ... 121
Figure 55: Schools outside all coverage used in Swaziland ... 122
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Acronyms
ADSL asymmetric DSL
AP Access Point
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
B Bearer channel
BRI Basic Rate Interface
BSS Basic Service Set
BWA Broadband wireless access CDMA Code Division Multiplex Access
D Data link channel
DSL Digital subscribe line DSLAM DSL Access Multiplexer
EASSY Eastern African Submarines cable system FBWA Fixed Broadband Wireless Access
GCO’ Level General Certificate of Education (Ordinary Level) GPRS General Packet Radio Services
GPS Global Positioning System
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
HDSL High-bit-rate DSL
HDSL2 High-bit-rate DSL version 2
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IGCSE International General Certificate of Secondary Education ISDN Intergraded Service Digital Network
ISO International Organization of Standardization ISP Internet Service Provider
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LAN Local Area Network
LED Light Emitting Diode
LLC Logical Link Control
MAC Medium Access Control
MTN Mobile Telecommunication Network NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development MOHSW Ministry of Health and Social Welfare
OSI Open System Interconnection
PMD Polarization Mode Dispersion PPP Point to Point Protocol
PRI Primary Rate Interface
PSTN Public Switch Telephone Network
RADSL Rate Adaptive DSL
RS Repeater Stations
RSP Residential Service Providers
SADC Southern African Development Community
SPTC Swaziland Posts and Telecommunication Corporation SSS Separated Subscriber Stations
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol UNISWA University of Swaziland
WAN Wider Area Network
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
Warschauer (2003), states that productivity and economic growth depend upon the application of science and technology which has to be introduced to people from an early age. This includes information and communication technologies (ICTs). In Swaziland ICT is a project that has been recently introduced by the Ministry of Education and Training in schools in a bid to enable teachers and students to access vast information from the Internet.
Swaziland has a sole supplier of fixed telecommunications network infrastructure namely, Swaziland Posts and Telecommunication Corporation (SPTC). SPTC owns systems network and backbone infrastructure which includes voice and high capacity data. In an attempt to provide more services and making sure most areas (especially in schools) in the country are covered within the Telecommunication networks, SPTC is expanding the networks with the Code Division Multiplex Access (CDMA), which is a wireless mobile technology.
In Swaziland, Internet services awareness and connectivity are still at grassroots level. Most of the schools with Internet connectivity mainly use it for administrative purposes. Internet roll out in schools around the country can be a great achievement for the government of Swaziland, especially the Ministry of Education and training.
Presently, there are some areas around the country where the existing fixed network infrastructure has not been provided due to the terrain of the country. The line of sight analysis is either not clear or not available at all (path loss) since Swaziland is a mountainous country. In such areas it is not feasible to erect the network infrastructure.
The purpose of this research is to analyze to explore Swaziland Posts and Telecommunication Corporation Telecommunication network coverage, applying Geographical Information System technologies to determine the most optimal provision of Internet to schools in Swaziland.
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This will be made possible using SPTC network infrastructure in anticipation that the Government will adopt the resulting outcomes of the research.
GIS tools and applications were used to identify schools that are presently within the Telecommunication network coverage infrastructure, to identify schools that had Internet and those without Internet.
1.2 Aims and Objectives 1.2.1 Main Objective
To explore Swaziland Posts and Telecommunication Corporation Telecommunication network coverage, applying Geographical Information System technologies to determine the most optimal provision of Internet to schools in Swaziland.
1.2.2 The specific objectives
Specifically, the study sought to:
1. Identify schools that are located within SPTC fixed network coverage and have Internet and those without Internet connectivity.
2. To identify schools located outside of the network coverage 3. Determine viability and process of linking unconnected schools
4. Explore alternative means of providing Internet for those schools located outside the network coverage.
1.3 Assumption of the Study
It is assumed that students from the rural areas walk not more than five (5) kilometres to school and students in urban schools not more than three (3) kilometres. This is critical for the telecommunication network coverage to cater for most of the schools in the country, based on a 7km SPTC radial distance buffer analysis.
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1.4 Intended Audience
The intended audience of this research study is the Swaziland Government especially the Ministry of Education and training, schools and academic institutions. The sole provider of fixed telecommunication network infrastructure (SPTC) will not be exempted.
1.5 Thesis Summary structure
This paragraph summarizes the thesis structure. The research aims and objectives of the study were outlined as follows:
Chapter one introduces the outline the dissertation structure. Main and objectives were stated, including assumption of study and intended audience.
In chapter two, a description of the study area was outlined.
In chapter three, existing literature on the use of Internet was stated. Literacy levels and the distribution of schools in the country were discussed. The chapter also discussed the status of education in Swaziland, outlining the IGCSE curriculum, which included the current status of information communication technologies (ICT). Technologies that can be used to provide Internet connectivity in schools were also highlighted.
Internet description, its advantages and disadvantages with the aid of Internet block diagrams was discussed. The importance and adoption of using Internet as a teaching and learning tool was also highlighted.
In chapter four the approach in methodology of the research was outlined. A cartographic model was included in this chapter to explain steps of the spatial analysis.
Chapter five displayed the outcome results in line with the main objective of the research.
In chapter six a discussion and review of the results was outlined.
Chapter seven stated the conclusion of the thesis and the recommendations thereof.
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1.6 Conclusion
Internet connectivity is considered as a valuable tool that can be used by the education sector in Swaziland to aid teachers and students to acclimatize with this new technology based curriculum.
Nonetheless, Internet in Swaziland is still at grassroots levels.
The research seeks to investigate ways and means of providing Internet in Swaziland schools through telecommunication network infrastructure. Alternative means shall be provided to those schools located outside the existing network coverage. The purpose of this research is how Geographical Information Systems (GIS) methods and operations can be utilized to find ways in which Internet can be provided to schools around the country. This will be made possible through data collection, data editing, spatial analysis and data management of the school shapefile.
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Chapter 2: Description of Study Area
2.1 Background
The kingdom of Swaziland is a landlocked country in Sub-Saharan Africa with a surface area of 17 364 km2 of which 160km2 is water
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It is the smallest country in Africa lying between 25o40' S and 27o20' S Latitude and 30o45' E and 32o10' E Longitude. The highest point is Umlembe at 1,862 meters above mean sea level and the lowest point is Great Usuthu River at 21 meters above mean sea level. The terrain largely consists of mountains, hills with some moderately sloping plains. The Lubombo Mountains stretch along eastern edges of Swaziland.The Drakensberg Mountains are the highest mountain range in Southern Africa that dominate the western edges of Swaziland in the Lubombo region. The country’s largest river is the Great Usuthu River, and other rivers of note include Mbuluzi and Ingwavuma. It is a former British colony that shares its borders with South Africa and Mozambique. Swaziland consists of 53 constituencies and the two official languages used are SiSwati and English, Refer to Figure 1 Swaziland Map on page 05.
6 Figure 1: Map of Swaziland
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2.2 Population
The country’s population is estimated to be 1.2 million people and only 24% live in urban areas while 76% live in rural areas. According to Figure 2, even though Swaziland is developing, 69% of the population still lives below the poverty line. Census in Swaziland is conducted every five to six years and the last one was in 2007; in between, one can only get estimates. (Central Statistics Office, 2007).
Figure 2: Population pyramid for Swaziland in the year 2007
High poverty levels have been exacerbated by the high prevalence of Human Immune Deficiency Virus and AIDS, currently 42% of the population is infected in the country. It is also prone to floods, drought, soil erosion, as well as overgrazing (MOHSW, 2006).
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2.3 Climate, Economy and Vegetation/Agriculture
The country’s climatic condition varies from tropical to near temperate, with wet summers and dry winters, December being mid-summer and June being mid winter. The economy is supported by agricultural produce which is said to have stagnated in recent years due to change in the kingdom’s climatic conditions as well as fluctuations in world economy (Central Statistics Office, 2008). This has led to failure for the country to meet its annual quota in production. Swaziland is able to produce sugarcane, cotton, maize, rice, citrus, pineapple, sorghum, peanuts and cattle. Asbestos, coal, clay, hydropower, forests, small gold and diamond deposits, quarry stone and talc are natural resources found in various parts of the country (Central Statistics Office, 2007).
2.4 Literacy Levels
According to the Central Statistics Office (2007), literacy levels in Swaziland are high, at 81%. There were more students attending primary education in the country. The report stated that males between the ages of 07 and 18 years are more literate than females at 90% and 88.3% respectively. Although school attendance is not mandatory, the average number of years attended by students is 7 at primary level and 5 at secondary and or high school.
However, if a student excels in his/her academic work, they eliminate one class which propels them to learn fewer years than the other students.
Schools in Swaziland are divided into three categories namely primary, secondary and high schools, as highlighted in Figure 3 on page 09. Primary education is widely available in Swaziland and almost all children enrol in this category as shown in Figure 3. It comprises of grades 1 to 7, which is 7 years of study. The secondary category is a bridge between primary and high school. This comprises of form 1 to 3, three years of study and high comprises of form 4 & 5.
The government is in the process of upgrading all secondary schools to high schools so that every child, especially in rural communities, can have access to high school education, where the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) and Information Communication and Technologies (ICT) curriculum are being implemented. However, this depends on the student density within about five constituencies. The high school category
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comprises of two years of study with form 4-5 classes. This is the last level before enrolling at tertiary education in local universities. However, in most cases students who qualify for tertiary education out number the sole university with three campuses. Most students choose to study an extra two years of matriculation in order to gain entry in South African universities.
10 Figure 3: Category of schools in Swaziland
11 Table 1 Summary of Schools per Region
Region / School Hhohho Manzini Shiselweni Lubombo Total Per Category
Primary schools 146 152 108 113 519
Secondary schools
8 9 15 14 46
High schools 43 43 34 33 153
Total schools per region
197 204 157 160 718
According to Table 1, there are seven hundred and eighteen (718) schools in the country, of which five hundred and nineteen (519) are primary schools. There are one hundred and fifty three (153) high schools, while forty six (46) are secondary schools.
2.5 Conclusion
The kingdom of Swaziland is a former British colony with an estimated population of about 1.2 million people. This is a landlocked country that shares boundaries with South Africa and Mozambique. The country has wet summers and dry winters and its economy is mostly supported by agricultural produce, which however, in recent years, have been stagnant due to low harvest which has been mostly affected by the rapid changing of weather conditions.
In a bid to conform to the rest of the world, the country has embarked on a curriculum upgrading and transformation from the General certificate of Education (GCE O’Level) curriculum to International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE). The new curriculum is aimed at developing information technology skills like the usage of computers and Internet for both students and teachers. The distributions of schools are categorized in administrative regions (Hhohho, Manzini, Lubombo and Shiselweni.
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Chapter 3: A Literature Review
3.1 Background
Information technology is affecting education in many revolutionary ways and the momentum towards these ways. The Internet allows students to explore and gather academic information from thousands of remote academic sources and libraries (Warschauer, 1997).
Over the last two decades Internet connectivity has been increasing in schools around the globe. According to Mason (2009), Internet has been adopted in the education fraternity as a very important tool for teaching and learning. The Ministry of Education and Training in Swaziland has considered Internet as a very important tool that can be used in schools by students to gather academic information, (Ministry of Education and Training report 1 2005).
The Internet has created a paradigm shift in the way schools educate, companies do business, consumers shop, governmental agencies operate and people interact. The impact of Internet has been far greater than just allowing people to send emails, but it has a global community of organizations and individuals (Goolsbee & Guryan, 2006).
3.2 Education in Swaziland
During the first two decades after the 1968 independence, Swaziland expanded educational provision. However, due to the weakening economy, HIV/ AIDS, poverty, persistent drought and population growth this could not be sustained. Swaziland schools fall into three categories of government, aided and private, (Ministry of Education and Training Report 1, 2005).
There are limited special needs facilities offered by the education system of Swaziland. This includes deaf, blind and physically handicapped children. Therefore, in most cases affording parents send their children with such conditions to South Africa where these special needs facilities are available (Ministry of Education and Training Report 1, 2005).
Primary schools start from grade one and span over seven years up to grade 7. There are not many secondary schools in the country, which are used as bridging learning between primary and high schools. Most secondary schools have been upgraded into high schools as student population increases.
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The education policy is to provide a curriculum which caters for children whose skills lie in practical areas, such as technical and agricultural subjects. Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) like Fundza (meaning “learn”), assist the Ministry of Education and Training in an educational development role by building and erecting libraries in schools and providing relevant teacher training and seeking donor agencies to boost and broaden the syllabus. In Swaziland there are only two major libraries and eleven branches countrywide, which is not enough for the provision of information to students on time.
There are noticeable regional discrepancies in school attendance in Swaziland, although preliminary enrolment figures for 2007 indicate a levelling out of such discrepancies. Urban and rural discrepancies including gender discrepancies are minimal in primary schools (Ministry of Education and Training Report 1, 2005). Despite the government educational improvement, there are still many children of school going age who are still not enrolled in schools. About 19% of school going children in Swaziland are excluded from this education system.
The education system suffers from limited teaching capacity due to inadequately trained and motivated teachers as well as computer laboratories and science laboratories. Inadequate provision of education infrastructure has also affected the learning environment in the country (Ministry of Education and Training Report 1, 2005).
The absence of sufficient and affordable teaching and/or learning materials affects the quality of education; which needs to be urgently addressed, (Ministry of Education Report 1, 2005).
Due to high levels of poverty in Swaziland many families are unable to afford quality education for their children which is mostly offered in private schools.
3.3 Introduction of International General Certificate of Secondary Education in Swaziland (IGCSE)
IGCSE is the world’s most popular international curriculum that assists students to quickly develop a range of skills that will add value in their lives. This curriculum has been developed and adopted by the Swaziland Ministry of Education and Training in 2006 in a bid to develop student ability to work, study, think and communicate with others to gain academic exposure
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and knowledge. This can be enhanced by the use of Internet in schools around Swaziland (Ministry of Education and Training Report 1, 2005).
IGCSE prepares students with a foundation for further education, giving them a basis in which to specialize on A levels and immediate employment. It further meets the matriculation requirements of universities in some countries outside Swaziland. It is a curriculum that develops entrepreneurial skills, developing problem solving skills, knowledge and understanding and the ability to undertake individual projects amongst students, (Advantages of IGCSE in Swaziland).
The curriculum has changed its focuses to quality education by improving teaching and learning through Internet research. It will further improve gender equity and empower students out of excellent quality teaching (Collins, 2005).
According to the Ministry of Education and Training Report 1 (2006), the main objective of the Ministry of Education is to make the curriculum more vibrant and responsive to the modern socio-economic, technical, professional and labour needs around the country. Internet has been found as the most valuable tool to assist both teachers and students to adapt in this fast changing world of technology. However, according to Nayyer & Salim (2003), the IGCSE curriculum development is a socio-political driven process often leading to heated political debates within the education bureau.
The 2006/2007-2007/2008 government financial budget’s subsection 245 states that the Government of Swaziland has approved the implementation of IGCSE curriculum countrywide. It further states that the government through the Ministry of Education and Training will financially support the development and roll out of the exercise.
The approval of implementing IGCSE curriculum in Swaziland has resulted in the need for provision of computers and Internet in schools around the country. This is because the IGCSE curriculum has totally shifted from being teacher-based into student-based, where students are expected to do their research on the Internet and further be engaged in online discussion groups, as well as class presentations.
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3.4 Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Swaziland
The rapid development of Information Communication and Technologies (ICT) has made tremendous changes in the twenty-first century, as well as affected the demands of modern society. The impact of new technologies on the workplace and everyday life, has resulted in education institutions striving to restructure their educational programs and classroom facilities in order to minimize the teaching and learning technology gap between developed and developing countries (Nyarko, 2007).
Information communication technology is the storage, retrieval, transmission and manipulation of digital data (Shafika, 2007). According to Venezky (2005), technology is a strong catalyst for educational innovation, especially when the Internet is involved. Coppola (2004), states that the use of ICT in educational processes is vital.
Many developing countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region are following the developed countries in an effort to restructure their education practices. This is done through utilizing the potential of information and communication technologies (ICT) (Shafika, 2007). Research has shown that computers are used less often in the classroom than in other organizations and this is strongly related to resistance within schools to the use of technology (Venezky, 2005).
In 1999, Swaziland computer education trust (CET) through the Ministry of Education and Training was set up to address technical education across the country’s state schools system (Shafika, 2007). The purpose of introducing ICT in Swaziland schools was to extend computer and vocational literacy to every school child from primary, secondary, high schools as well as tertiary institutions. Computers are intended to be used across the country in the school curriculum with the aim of future Internet integration in Swaziland’s education system (Crawford, 2007).
The introduction of ICTs’ in Swaziland schools will require that the government invests in building computer laboratories countrywide. However, one challenge would be that schools that are community owned cannot be able to raise funds to build computer laboratories.
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Another factor would be that schools may need to organize training for technical staff (that is, the teachers) which may be conducted after classes; and it is likely that some teachers may be reluctant to enrol as this may compete with their spare time and personal commitments.
3.5 Description of Internet
Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide using specific protocols (Crawford, 2007).
It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies (Dutton, 2007).
The terminology consists of autonomous systems that are connected together by router called boarder gateways. The autonomous systems are the backbone networks, the regional networks and the customer networks. Roughly, an autonomous system is a network that is managed by an independent authority (Walrand, 1998). For example, Swaziland has only one university with three campuses, the autonomous system can be applicable in these campuses to Internet.
Internet is also seen as a global repository of information that can be in a form of text, pictures, audio clips, web pages, software etc. kept on as a file on a server somewhere.
(Dutton, 2007)
According to Luan et al. (2005), the Internet can be used as a supplement to traditional instructional methods, where teachers can instruct students to do a research on the Internet in order to gain in-depth concepts and knowledge about a particular topic. The Internet offers rich and efficient scaffolding for educators and learners to address them. It further encourages student critical thinking capabilities and collaboration amongst them.
3.6 Adoption and Use of Internet in Schools around the World
When reviewing the educational uses of Internet around the world, the study discovered that Internet is used as a new educational and instructional technology from homes, primary schools, secondary and high schools through to universities (Grant et al., 2000). Globally, it has been discovered as an educational tool of enormous potential and can be used as a supplement to the traditional classroom lecture methods where teachers feed the students with
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vast academic information from books (Mason, 2009). For decades, the resource and interactions in a classroom depended on the curriculum and the beliefs of the teacher.
The adoption of Internet encourages both teachers and students to reach their educational objectives. The Internet will expand the resources available and decrease the time and location dependencies that can be limiting factors towards education (Suh, 2005). Research by Coppola (2004), shows that Internet is less used in classrooms than in other organizations and this is strongly related to resistance within schools to the use of this technology. Martin et al.
(2004), states that it is the role of school authorities and administrators to adopt the use of Internet in schools.
Grant et al. (2000), proposed a model for education, which is specifically geared toward developing countries. They state that the development of Internet in schools can be used in developing countries to enhance the delivery of high quality education. Teachers should take advantage of Internet for schools to promote student understanding of science.
The development of Internet globally is supported by the World Bank in projects like experimental computers in schools, implementation of information communication technology (ICT) and globalization in education respectively (Usun, 2004). In developed countries, leading computer companies sponsor various schools with computer laboratories and computers and free Internet (Prince, 2007).
This exercise has resulted in the adoption of Internet being used as an educational tool suitable for effective use from primary, secondary and high schools through to tertiary institutions in Swaziland. In schools where the Internet has been adopted for academic use, teachers and students have developed reliance on it. Students with prior exposure to Internet usage generally rely on it to research their school work at tertiary level more than those who are only exposed at tertiary level.
In the United Kingdom, 2006, about 57% of households had Internet access, of which 40%
had broadband Internet access. This enabled pupils to be able to access Internet at home and in most of the schools. It was discovered that young people access Internet more that adults, surfing academic information, health issues, sports, reading news and much more. This may expose students to non academic sites which require parental guidance (Cattagn & Westal, 2001).
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In United States of America, 1994, only 35% of public schools had access to Internet in their classrooms (Simmons, 2005). By 2005, nearly 100% of public schools in the USA had access to Internet in their classrooms. Most of these used broadband and only 455 schools used wireless to connect to Internet. Pupils were encouraged to use the online libraries and information clearing houses to obtain relevant literature in the sea of information. According to Lenhart et al., (2001), 78% of children in the United State of America (USA) and 87% of parents believe that Internet helped in academic study.
More schools in the USA have adopted restrictive internet policies to encourage schools to adopt internet filtering to prevent pupils from accessing offensive and harmful materials. In Canada about 80% of the pupils were using Internet both at home and in schools. During the last two years Internet rates have increased where most pupils are using the Internet for academic information (Wells, 2006).
Across Africa only 3.6 million people, 5.5% of the population uses Internet. Only 2.5% of schools in Africa have Internet connection compared to 17.8% from the rest of the world schools, some areas in Africa are still untouched by the advances in world technology (Bradshaw et al., 2007). In most parts of Africa telecommunication infrastructure has not been erected, especially in rural areas. In some cases, especially in Swaziland, where the infrastructure has been erected in rural areas, the communities have no sense of appreciation as they vandalize the network and steal copper and optical fibre cables, which take a decade to replace (Jenson, 2001).
The process of adopting and diffusion of ICT, computers and internet in education in Africa is in transition. Whilst most African countries have embraced internet development, there is a notable stratification in terms of their ability to implement. Several initiatives are emerging to address the fact that Africa has long been disadvantaged by the lack of fast and affordable connectivity with the rest of the world. One such initiative is the Eastern African Submarines cable system (EASSY) project that is focused on developing an undersea optic fibre cable that will link the countries of Africa with the rest of the world (Beck, 1997).
Most African countries are in the process of liberalizing their telecommunication policies to enable more competition and diversity of service providers in the industry. This is having the effect of lowering the cost of access to information and telecommunication infrastructure. The
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cost of connectivity is affordable for most schools and educational higher institutions. There are huge gaps between urban and rural areas in terms of telecommunication infrastructure (Yaghi, 1997).
Internet in Chile has linked almost all secondary schools and more than half of the primary schools. Most schools have been provided with computers and technical support is constantly given by the government, as well as extensive technical training support for teachers in order to make the program equipment self- sufficient (Crede et al., 1998).
In Zambia Internet connections has enabled schools, institutions and government sectors to operate more efficiently and has given local people the opportunity to communicate and explore new ideas. Zambia’s telecommunication infrastructure strongly influences the provision of essential services like Internet to the public (Madamombe, 2007). Students now receive better quality information from teachers who use Internet for their lesson preparation.
There has been no Internet connectivity to schools in Uganda. A new Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)’s project called e-schools, connecting students of the world and expand their learning outcomes was introduced. However, in Uganda more schools have no electricity connectivity which further hinders the development of Internet into schools (Madamombe, 2007).
In Botswana the IT industry is developing faster than the rest of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region countries. The government of Botswana is making a tremendous effort to equip most schools with computers, accompanied by an industrial policy which emphasizes comprehensive science and technology in schools. There are about 578 internet hosts in the country and about 5000 users including schools. It is one of the 11 countries with more than 20 000 dial-up subscribers (Jensen, 2002).
However, According to Priti et al. (2001), high costs of subscriptions, connection fees and telephone charges for dial up access remain a major challenge to Internet access in schools of Botswana. There is still a lack of adequately skilled and trained manpower, inadequate Internet exposure in schools and lack of ICT policy. There is also poor telecommunication infrastructure in rural areas. Schools located in those regions have no Internet access.
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The number of teachers in Botswana without computer skills is vast. The government of Botswana through the Ministry of Education urgently needs to review the current education system with regards to ICT literacy (Venezky, 2004).
Most schools in South Africa are still at infusion stage where they are still integrating and embedding into information communication technologies (ICT), computers and Internet across their curriculums. Teachers in this country are at a stage where they are exploring this new way in which they said computers and Internet changes their personal productivity and professional practice (Mbeki, 1996). About 63% of South African schools have Internet access, while 37% do not. A few schools at about 11.2%, mainly private schools, have computers in each classroom. However, there are some schools where students and teachers still do no have access to the Internet (Mbeki, 1996).
Swaziland had about seven hundred and eighteen (718) schools during the compilation of this research. Internet usage in Swaziland was below international standards. 65% of the Swazi students do not have access to the Internet at all. 35% of the students have Internet services in their neighbourhoods, but are not eager or interested to use it for academic purposes. A number of Swazi students are unable to access Internet at homes but in key cities or towns (ICT the Ministry of Education and Training Report, 2005).
Internet usage in Swaziland is growing relatively fast, but the level of Internet penetration and expansion rates is still well below international standards. Swaziland’s fixed network is 100%
digital, supported by a countrywide optical fibre network (refer to figure 6, optical Fibre Map in page 31).
Currently, there are two telecommunication network service providers in Swaziland, namely, Mobile Telecommunications Network (MTN), which provides mobile telephone networks and Swaziland Posts and Telecommunication Corporation (SPTC), which provides fixed telecommunication networks, but is in the process of implementing fixed mobile employing Code Division Multiplex Access (CDMA).
Fixed line connections are currently at 46 000 which is about 4% of Teledensity. Data communication is enabled via a managed leased line network and data rates of up to 8kbps. In existence is the Internet protocol (IP) gateway with a 1mbps uplink and 2mbps downlink with
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a backup via South Africa at 2mbps. There are currently 7 Internet providers with an estimated customer base of about 20 000.
In Swaziland most government or public schools do not have Internet accessibility when compared to private schools. Schools from rural areas are the number one victims due to unavailability of telecommunication infrastructures and/or the fundamental awareness of Internet usability, (ICT department- The Ministry of Education Report).
The highest number of Internet access in Swaziland is at Internet cafés at 12.2% of the population, followed by only 8.8% access Internet at work and lastly, schools, universities, colleges and other tertiary institutions at 2.8%. The researcher took a study on four schools comparing them with four Internet cafés in two cities of the country (Mbabane & Manzini). It was gathered that a number of students and teachers were mostly found browsing Internet at Internet cafes than using it from their respective schools. The highest number of Internet users in the country is from the Manzini region, followed by Hhohho, Lubombo and Shiselweni regions respectively. Internet is mostly used by university and college students who not only use it for academic work but also for personal usage.
A study carried out by Shafika (2007), found that even students from the university of Swaziland (UNISWA) use Internet as a last resort and a secondary source of information.
Internet was not seen as the primary source of information for their academic objectives.
About 53% of the students within the university do not use the Internet, even if they have one they browse once a week, or once or twice a month, not for academic purposes.
3.7 The Importance of Using Internet in Schools of Swaziland
During the late 90s, an urgent need for Internet usage emerged in Swaziland. This was realized after the government, through the Ministry of Education adopted the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) curriculum to develop a full range of student skills through research and classroom discussions.
The IGCSE curriculum involves both the teacher and the students by developing student’s ability to work, study and communicate with others through the Internet. Internet was seen as a good aid for both teachers and students to research, think critically and intellectually, and
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inquire in preparation for their subject lessons, unlike expecting to always receive information from teachers (Ministry of Education Report 1, 2005).
3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Internet in schools
There are various reasons behind the value of Internet usage in the education community for both teaching and learning (Evantes & Straubhaar, 2001). Telecommunications network infrastructures are becoming easily available these days. Educators and students can benefit tremendously from the vast academic resources that are available on the Internet. There are many reasons of bringing Internet into schools because the education systems nowadays consider Internet as a very important tool, which can enhance teaching and learning (Hope, 2004).
This paragraph gives benefits of using the Internet in schools by both teachers and students.
Warschauer (1997), states that using the Internet in classrooms can enhance students motivation through fast learning and skilful writing. Internet puts students in a more effective rather that passive role of always receiving information from teachers, replacing the old traditional classroom lecture. Internet offers the potential for a huge increase in student and teacher interactions (Salberry, 2001).
Internet gives students and teachers a greater sense of the variety of possible real audiences, helping them to develop understanding of this audience and learning strategies for responding to them (Fox, 1998). Luan et al. (2005), states that teachers and students who use the Internet are not bound to traditional modes of learning, their interactions with one another are immediate, prompt and widely shared. Internet not only expands the amount of resources available to the user, but it also makes the process of acquiring academic material much quicker than the traditional ways (Hargittai, 1996).
Internet provides constantly updated and expanded resources that are not available in some schools, because schools can only provide documents and books that in some schools of Swaziland, students will never be able to access, especially those from the rural areas. Many schools are working with outdated text books and materials in their libraries of which most
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authors have published updated versions books in different subjects on the Internet (Ministry of Education Report, 2001).
Internet offers a diverse look on a subject as opposed to looking at the collection of one author or one book on a subject, so students can browse numerous sources in one sitting. The multiplicity in Internet services offers a chance for children of different talents to all develop a certain niche in the use of the medium, developing an area of expertise and self esteem (Hargittai, 1996). Internet stimulates student thinking process and offers solutions to problems identified by students and teachers, when using outdated library books and course materials. It is a vital tool for modern science and technology for students (Murray, 2000).
According to Buckingham (2008), Internet allows teachers and students to access a plethora of information through powerful teaching tools and libraries. It also enhances students’ ability to handle more complex problems and promote co-operation and peer tutoring or group discussions amongst students. This allows independent work in class projects and improves communication and writing skills Luan et al. (2005). Students with physical disabilities or barriers can be aided in that they can access information from schools without going to Internet cafés in town. This will also be of assistance to students in rural areas.
Hargittai (1996), states that Internet grants teachers and schools administrators numerous possibilities through its computer mediated tools. Thelen (2002), states that Internet gives many benefits to people such as quick access to information. Students who use Internet will have access to electronic libraries around the world, yet before students had to spend hours in libraries reading and printing books.
Students can use the Internet to construct and publish their work, therefore becoming not only users, but generating their own academic sites (Singhal, 1997). According to Krajka (2001), teachers can publish their materials, ideas and sharing of knowledge with other teachers, creating homepages.
Cooley (2001), states that teachers seemed to appreciate that Internet technology helped improve their productivity. They could also recognize the value of the Internet as an educational resource. Greater familiarity with the Internet increased positive attitudes to both
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students and teachers. The benefits of using Internet as a teaching tool or as learning medium, teachers would integrate new technology effectively into their teaching (Luan et al., 2005).
Teachers can have group discussions online with their peers concerning changing curriculums and how they can be improved as they are implemented, also sharing of academic related information (Hargittai, 1996). Whilst Internet is being adopted as an essential tool in the education system around the globe to develop new ways of learning for both teachers and students, there are quite a number of challenges that are incurred in the implementation of Internet in schools.
Outlined in the paragraphs below are challenges of adopting and implementing internet in schools. One major hindrance of Internet implementation in Swazi schools is the lack of telecommunication infrastructure and computer labs. There are a lot of schools that were identified by this study to be without Internet because of the limitation of network coverage.
Internet implementation in Africa may seem a luxury to schools which are currently struggling with poverty, disease and other basic needs like water, electricity and telecommunication networks, NEPAD. Shin & Son (2007), highlighted that though teachers may have positive attitudes towards the use of the Internet for teaching, but face difficulties in finding appropriate teaching materials and in integrating them into the curriculum. Using the Internet requires higher order thinking skills which position reading on-line into critical literacy, because those students who cannot make critical transferring evaluations cannot possibly find what they need to read (Krajka, 2001).
According to Usun (2003), some Internet providers are not willing to reduce Internet charges for schools, but instead increase the bandwidth, which may be prove to be very difficult for most schools in Swaziland to maintain the monthly costs. Warschauer (2003), searching the Internet enhances higher thinking abilities and enables judgment to be made about the source, validity, reliability and accuracy of the information, this require specific guidance and focus from teachers is critical. Teachers doubt their students’ ability to discriminate between reliable and unreliable websites (Cooley, 2001). There is a huge technical requirement such as computer labs with Internet, which the government is to embark on urgently. Implementation
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of Internet in school is related as a discomfort by teachers, because this project needs extra effort of classroom management (Warschauer, 2003).
Lack of adequate training in the use of the Internet technologies has a negative influence on teachers (Davies, 2003). There are a lot of non-academic harmful materials that students do not need to view, yet it is easily accessible (Usun, 2003). Internet tools require some amount of reading and writing, moreover they require skills of logic and inference for the navigation of sites.
Instead of being faced with a linear flow of information which is the only way a book can present, the Internet allows abundant information to be presented at once which students may take some time to get to what they exactly need for a particular subject. This may expose them to sites that were not made for them (Hargittai, 1998). There are also increasing advertising commercial sites with little or no educational content in it. These sites further offer and contain attractive games for students that lure them and thus requiring more supervision from teachers (Usun, 2003).
Introducing Internet in schools around Swaziland will come with other types of responsibilities such as extensive supervision, since students can be tempted to surf non- academic and harmful sites. According to Sullivan, (2002), adapting to positive aspects of the Internet will require a great effort and commitment from teachers. This may not be the case with Swazi teachers as most of them are computer illiterate and are not using the Internet both at school and home.
The attitude towards Internet and technology must be constantly monitored. It is a fact that how early the teachers were exposed to computers and Internet can influence their attitude.
The government of Swaziland will have to continually train and upgrade teachers and IT experts with use of this new technological tool and their skills will require continuous updating (Hargittai, 1996).
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3.9 Technologies for Providing Internet Connectivity in Schools of Swaziland
There are numerous fixed and wireless telecommunication methods for connecting schools, organizations and individuals to the Internet. They vary from narrowband to broadband technologies at varying costs. Such technologies depend on the level of the telecommunication network infrastructure of the company that is providing the services in a particular country.
Swaziland as a third world country finds herself in a unique position in that most of the Telecommunications network infrastructure is found in the urban areas; i.e. both fixed and wireless. The rural areas are not well covered as most of the people living there are below the poverty line (69%). It is also very difficult to erect the layout of the network infrastructure because of the terrain and sparsely populated areas.
This chapter will look into the various telecommunication technologies that are available in Swaziland, and how these technologies can be used to provide Internet to schools within the country. There are two Telecommunication service providers in the country and these are:
Swaziland Posts and Telecommunications Corporation (SPTC), which are currently the sole fixed network provider and Mobile Telecommunication Networks (MTN) which provides mobile telecommunication services. Both operators want to provide fixed and wireless services. Internet can be provided in schools using both the fixed and wireless technologies.
At this juncture it is essential to describe the Internet connectivity technologies that are available in the country.
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3.9.1 The Internet Network Block Diagrams
Figure 4: SPTC fixed line connection block diagram (source, SPTC data section)
Figure 5: SPTC wireless connectivity diagram
Customer MDF & pots DSLAM
BRAS
AAA
Internet Cloud
Customer C Customer B
Customer D
Wireless System I.e.
WIMAX,CDMA &
WIFI
Customer A
Customer E
Switch Router Internet
Cloud
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3.9.2Internet Connectivity Technologies
There are currently two connectivity technologies used for providing Internet and these are:
1. Wired or fixed Connectivity 2. Wireless Connectivity
3.9.3Wired or Fixed Technologies
There are different types of wired connectivity technologies that can be used and some of them are described in the following paragraphs.
3.9.4 Analogue Dial-up
Analogue dial-up involves two modems and a telephone line. Analogue dial-up customers use modems and telephone lines to reach the internet service provider (ISP), which in turn will terminate the point to point protocol (PPP), extracting the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol) packets and route them to the internet (Spanbauer, 1999). Currently, it is the most commonly used technology for Internet connection in Swaziland. There are three major internet service providers (ISPs) in Swaziland that compete amongst each other, buying leased lines from SPTC to provide internet to various customers including schools, government, and various organizations.
According to Downes (2007), dial-up technology is cheap, especially for people who only need to read their mail and or work minimally on the web. Secondly, dial-up can be pervasive in both urban and rural areas of Swaziland since the existing optical and copper network infrastructure is erected in most parts of the country. However, there are still some areas or communities around the country which are still not provided with the Telecommunication network infrastructure.
The disadvantage of analogue dial-up is that it has a narrow band, with a maximum download speed of 56Kbps (kilobits per second) and maximum upload of 33 Kbps. If substantial use of Internet connection is made, then the user will be paying more than they would when using a broadband internet connection (Kehoe, 1992). This disadvantage will be noticeable to schools where, given a chance, children will make extensive use of the Internet for research purposes,
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resulting in reduced connection speeds and increased expenses. See tables 2 on page 29 and 3 on page 31 for a comparison of dial-up and ADSL costs in Swaziland.
Another disadvantage is that 76% of the Swazi population still lives in the rural areas where telecommunication network infrastructure is limited due to costs incurred when erecting the network compared to potential revenue return. A high copper cable theft in most rural areas of Swaziland results Internet disconnections rapidly. Below is a table showing analogue dial- up pricing.
Table 2 Analogue Dial-Up Pricing
Type of Service Monthly Rental Installation
Analogue Dial-Up E102.34 E119.00
Standard Dial Up E0.61 Peak Time (charge every 3 minutes).
E0.61 Off-Peak Time (charge every 6 minutes).
N/A
(source, SPTC marketing, 2011)
3.9.5 ISDN
Intergraded Service Digital Network (ISDN) is designed to support various communication functions, including voice, data and video on a single integrated network (Martin, 1999). Its capability is to dedicate lines for pure data-centric or high-quality hybrid applications. ISDN was created to facilitate an environment to integrate voice and data in Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) end to end network (Gumaste & Antony, 2004). This is one of the technologies that are mostly used in Swaziland to provide Internet services to various organizations around the country, which may also be used to connect schools to internet.
ISDN works the same way as dial-up in that there are two IDN interfaces on either end of an ISDN line. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP) packets are encapsulated in Point to Point
