Some Notices on the "Magic Agent Wang" (Wang ling-kuan)
at Mt. Ch'i-ch'ii in Tzu-t'ung District, Szechwan Province
Florian C. Reiter, Berlin
In September 1997 we revisited Mt. Ch'i-ch'ii in Tzu-t'ung district, Sze¬
chwan province, which is the site of the famous "Great Temple" [Ta-
miao] and the cult ofthe deity for the literati, Wen-ch'ang ti-chiin.' For¬
tunately the annual temple festivity [miao-hui) was in progress and daily
thousands of pilgrims and pedlars crowded temples and halls, burning
incense, making offerings of various sorts or selling herbs and other
goodies. When we first stayed at Mt. Ch'i-ch'ü in 1991 the temples all
looked rather deserted. Now we again find a shadow wall (ying-pi) which
bars the entrance from malignant or demonic forces, and the original
main entrance in the magnificent Chung-hsiao Tower was restored. It
seems that the whole area has recovered in a sense, and the religious pur¬
pose of the temples and their divinities is obviously well understood,
which the many fiags and banners with telling inscriptions show. As to
the great variety of temples within the Ta-miao compound, all of them
were restored to their original functions and filled with new images of
appropriate deities. We noticed that an old and comparatively small
building, the former Ling-kuan Temple, again houses the Magic Agent in
the form of a new and terrific image. The deity has the individual name
"Magic Agent Wang" (Wang ling-kuan). This temple stands between the
huge Kuan-ti Temple and the Chung-hsiao Tower, guarding a small
entrance in the main wall.
Cruising around Tzu-t'ung district we saw several new temples, which
all had new images of the Magic Agent Ling-kuan. The image usually is
set up to protect the entrance ofthe respective temple. All those images
were meant to look frightening in order to keep demons away. However,
we mostly did not get any further information about the divinity or the
personal name of the Magic Agent. The word ling-kuan itself is used as a
' F. C. Reiter: Der Tempelberg Ch'i-ch'ü in der Provinz Szechwan im China der
Gegenwart. Würzburg 1993. T. F. Kleeman: A God's Own Tale, the Book of Trans¬
formations of Wenchang, the Divine Lord of Zitong. New York 1994.
Wang ling-kuan at the Taoist temple Shang-ch'ing kuan, in Tzu-t'ung district.
The Statue is seated high above the main entrance.
personal name. We were told that the iconography of the "Magic Agent"
was based "on memory" and "local traditions".
The Ta-miao at Mt. Ch'i-ch'ii is an exception in many respects. Every
temple has a poster with information about the images and their meaning.
The poster at the Ling-kuan Temple explains that the personal name of
the Magic Agent is Wang Shan. He is said to be affiliated with the famous
Sung Taoist Lin Ling-su (1076-1120), the renowned exponent ofthe Shen-
hsiao traditions and Thunder rituals (lei-fa)ß
It is common knowledge that in religious Taoism the notion of a struc¬
tured pantheon prevailed, which in many ways seemed to copy the hier¬
archies of worldly administrations. A divine force is in charge of almost
everything. The Nan-Sung text Tao-men ting-chih lists a vast number of
"immortal agents" (hsien-kuan)^, "agents ofthe water(ways)" and "fire".
"Agents ofthe earth" are matched by "agents ofthe heavens" (shui-kuan/
huo-kuan/ti-kuan/t'ien-kuan)*. Other agents are in charge ofthe "crimi¬
nal files" (tsui-lu kuan), others are called "judicial agents" (p'an-kuan)^.
Here we also find the protective "strongmen" (li-shih) and a whole lot
of "entourage agents" (tsung-kuan)^, who represent the cycle of the com¬
binations of the ten celestial stems with the twelve branches. This is
an impressive and comprehensive effort in terms of systematization,
which is a recurrent intellectual phenomenon, especially in Sung-times.
However, we should like to remark that the much older T'ai-shang Lao-
chiin chung-ching also records fantastic numbers of "entourage agents"
(tsung-kuan), describing the deities and immortals inhabiting the human
lungs.'' In other words, the Magic Agents belong to the category of divine
2 XT 296 Li-shih chen-hsien t'i-tao t'ung-chien 53.1a-16a. J. M. Boltz: A Sur¬
vey of Taoist Literature, Tenth to Seventeenth Centuries. Berkeley 1987, pp. 26-
27. A short summary ofthe tradition concerning Wang Shan is given by Ma Shu-
t'ien: Ch'iian-hsiang chung-kuo san-pai shen. Nan-ch'ang: Chiang-hsi Mei-shu
Comp. 1995, p. 232-233. For Wang Ling-kuan, also see Huang Hai-te and Li
Kang (edd.): Chien-ming tao-chiao tz'u-tien. Ch'eng-tu 1991, p. 81. See Jen Chi-
yü (ed.): Chung-kuo tao-chiao shih. Shanghai 1990, p. 562. Wang Shan or Wang
Ling-kuan is connected with quite a few distinguished - religious - names of
honour and might, see below. For the iconography of "iron face", Marshal Wang
[Shan], see TT 1220 Tao-fa hui-yüan 241.1a.
3 TT 1224: 3.30b sq. On this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao.
Peking 1991, p. 965; no. 1212.
* TT 1224: 3.36b; 9.20a; 3.35b.
5 TT 1224: 3.37a; 9.9a sq.
6TT 1224: 3.56a; 7.10b.
TT 1168: 1.17b-19a (no. 23). Concerning the Lao-tzu chung-ching see Jen-
forces which the accompHshed Taoist can visualize as internal realities.
Together e. g. with "jade-girls" they wait upon the adept who succeeded
practicing esoteric instructions concerning internal breathing technics,
which e. g. the Yün-chi ch'i-ch'ien reports.^
The simple question occurs at once how to assess the Magic Agent
Wang Shan within this context that does not feature this name. We also
should like to know how the fairly anonymous title of "Magic Agent"
came to be connected with this personal name. The Ta Ming Tao-tsang
ching^, however, does not contain the biography of any person called
Wang Shan, and no mention is made of him in the canonical biographies
of Lin Ling-su or his famous Taoist contemporary and successor Wang
Wen-ch'ing (1093-1 ISS)'", which the poster at the Ling-kuan Temple on
Mt. Ch'i-ch'ii could suggest at first sight.
It is rewarding, first of all, to look at the name and designation "Magic
Agent" itself in a more general way and to consider its meaning. Even if
we do not succeed in pinning down the name Wang Shan as representing
a real and historical person, the name itself, however, does intend to sug¬
gest such a historical reality.
We make a start with T'ao Hung-ching (456-536), who lived long before
the Nan-Sung period" and made himself a name as compiler ofthe Shang-
ch'ing texts. He signs for Tung-hsüan ling-pao chen-ling wei-yek t'u^^,
which obviously lists the pantheon as it was thought to be grouped at that
time. The text begins with the "Heavenly Worthy of Prime Origin" (Fwan-
shih t'ien-tsun), whom high charges accompany on the left and right side.
They are named e. g. "so-and-so Lord Tao" (... tao-chün).^^ We see quite a
few impressive titles like "... Lord ofthe Dawn of Origin" (... yüan-ling
chün) and "... Jade Emperor" (... yü-ti).^* T'ao Hung-ching explains that
Chi-vü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p. 924; no. 1158. According to this source
the anonymous work was done in the Wei/Chin period.
«TT 1032: 58.5a {Mao-shan hsien-che fu nei-ch'i chüeh). Also see TT 1032:
65.10a {He-tan fa) for a similar statement.
8 We use the edition Cheng-t'ung tao-tsang. Taipei: I-wen Company 1977, 61
vols. (Abr. TT).
'0 TT 296: 53.16a-21b. J. M. Boltz: A Survey of Taoist Literature, p. 27.
" This refers to the period when the Tao-men ting-chih was compiled, see
above.
'2 For Shang-ch'ing texts generally see 1. Robinet: La revelation du Shangqing
dans I'histoire du Taoisme. Paris 1984: 2 vols. Concerning TT 167, see Jen
Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p. 122; no. 0166.
13 TT 167: la sq.
1* TT 167: 2b.
all these names refer to the realm of "Jade Purity" (yü-ch'ing) where the
divinity Yüan-shih t'ien-tsun wields his might. Here it is that the "out¬
standing perfected and immortal agents" (kao-chen hsien-kuan) convene
for audiences and banquets.
Similar groups and lists around other central divine figures follow.
Eventually we also notice plain numbers as distinctive elements, like the
"twenty four agential lords and military officers" (kuan-chün chiang-li)^^
amongst plain names of Taoists. Already in this early text the word kuan
"agent(s)" appears in many combinations, for instance see the "agential
king" (kuan-wang).^^ This text ends with two large sets of titles, mixed up
with some plain common names, which are said to stand for "immortal
agents" (hsien-kuan) and "demonic agents" (kuei-kuan).^"^ In some cases
T'ao Hung-ching identifies the titles of those transcendent figures with
their original worldly names. Obviously transcendent forces and worldly
people who turned immortal are listed side by side. Again, neither the
term ling-kuan "Magic Agent" nor the personal name Wang Shan were
included in T'ao Hung-ching's book. However, we understand that in this
context the general term "agent" points to rather subordinate charges,
which also can go without any personal names, but numbers alone may
do.
Anjrway, as to the numbers in the text by T'ao Hung-ching, the demon¬
ic officials in the last group ofhis text are said to share seventy-five desig¬
nations of official ranks.!* This reminds us of the T'ang Taoist Chang
Wan-fu (fl. 711), whose Ch'uan-shou san-tung ching-chieh fa-lu lüeh-shuo
presents the "Register of the Seventy-five Generals of Immortal Agents"
and another register of the same type and name, however, referring to
"Magic Agents" (Hsien-kuan ch'i-shih-wu chiang-chün lu and Ling-kuan
...).'9 These two registers may be given to young boys and girls, novices
of the Taoist career. The Magic Agents belong to those forces which the
15 TT 167: 12b.
16 TT 167: 16b.
17 TT 167: 25a-26b; 27a-29a. Concerning the kuei-kuan see e. g. Ch. Mollier:
La methode de l'empereur du Nord du Mont Fengdu, une tradition exorciste
du Taoisme medieval, p. 341, where the astral deity Pei-tou chün ("Lord of the
Dipper") is listed as head ofthe kuei-kuan. In: T'oung Pao, vol. LXXXIII, Fasc.
4-5.
18 TT 167: 29a.
19 TT 1241: 1.3b. Concerning this text see Jen-Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang
t'i-yao, p. 982, no. 1229.
Taoist priest can employ. For instance, the Ming source Tao-men k'o-
yiian ta-ch'üan chi features how the administering Taoist priest [kao-
kung) ritually exteriorizes his officiating Magic Agents according to his
registers. They inhabit his body, and in this case have to serve as messen¬
gers in the ritual effort to effect rain. 2"
The numbers and ranks of such ling-kuan appear to be countless, and
their magic interferences are not restricted to any specific range of
duties, although they are often linked with the administration of the
netherworld and its affairs. Some evidence may be given. The Tao-men
ting-chih shows a formula according to which the administering priest has
Magic Agents, acting on behalf ofthe "holy emperor of Mt. T'ai", amend
the registers of life of a repentant client and dissolve any distress or ca¬
lamity for him or her. 2' The "demonic agents ofthe hells of earth" (ti-yü
kuei-kuan) figure in the context of a cÄai-fasting of the Yellow Register
(Huang-lu ta-chai)ß^ That type of agent is encountered in ch'an-hui lit¬
erature, which generally aims at salvation and supports the repentance
or abrogation of sin and guilt. This eventually involves the determined
and correct veneration of the divinities at Mt. Feng-tu, the place of the
"hells of earth". 23 The Nan-Sung text T'ai-shang ling-pao ch'ao-t'ien
hsieh-tsui ta-ch'an presents a long array of these divinities ofthe nether¬
world, and amongst them we see quite a number of "Magic Agents [acting
as] examiners of the demons" (k'ao-kuei ling-kuan).'^*
On the other hand, the Wu-yüeh chen-hsing t'u xu reports that "Mt. Ho
being the Heir Apparent for the holy mountain of the South was ordered
by the Yellow Emperor to serve as vize-ruler of Mt. Heng leading on
30 000 Magic Agents. Above they arrange the breaths to be harmonious,
below they save the black-haired people25, review [the ranks and files
of] all the immortals, restrain and govern the spirits of the water (shui-
shen)."^^ Needless to say that the quoted "precious text" Wu-yüeh
20 fT 1225: 11.2a-2b. Concerning this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-
tsang t'i-yao, p. 966-967; no. 1213.
21 TT 1224: 10.4b.
22 TT 1224: 10.8b.
23 A lively description ofthe tortures in these hells is e. g. TT 192 T'ai-shang t'ai-ch'ing pa-tsui sheng-t'ien pao-ch'an la-3a. See above note 17: Ch. Mollier.
24 TT 189: 8. 12a-12b. For this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-
yao, p. 138; no. 0188.
2''' This means the Chinese people.
2Ö TT 1032 Yün-chi ch'i-ch'ien 79.4a. The text is attributed to the Han-Taoist
genius Tung-fang Shuo. The text establishes a close relationship between the
famous mountains, which themselves have the status of divine potentials.
chen-hsing t'u itself is protected and treasured by unnamed Magic
Agents. 2^
It is the Taoist priest who knows how to handle and employ such
transcendent forces. In this sense the T'ai-shang tung-yüan shen-chu
ching deals specifically with demons (kuei). The extant edition was most
likely compiled in the T'ang period and has a preface by Tu Kuang-t'ing
(850-933), who, however, claims for the text an origin in the late Western
Chin period (3rd cent.). 2** The book reveals e. g. that any good person who
happens to suffer from an unexpected calamity and illness should invite
a Taoist priest {San-tung tao-shih) to recite this scripture. As a prerequi¬
site for the right effect ofthe ritual that person has to heed a diet, discard
libidinous desires, purify body and mind and engage in silent meditation,
concentrating on the five emperors and venerable spirits, the Magic
Agents and the military emissaries, who would line up in attendance on
his left and right side. Finally the ritual master (Ja-shih) invites the heav¬
enly perfected and divine immortals to come down in order to save and
protect the respective client. The text then features the invitation ofthe
Five Emperors, the divine immortals and their (heavenly) troops to
descend to the site of the ritual {tao-ch'ang) where they have to search
and arrest the demonic thieves. Now, the Azure Emperor ofthe East, the
lords of the nine barbarian tribes, the azure magic generals [who are]
81000 persons, the divine immortals and all the Magic Agents of the
Eastern Country come down altogether, contain and arrest the "demons
of wood-essence" and the "azure plagues".Similar presentations for the
other directions follow suit.
The "Magic Agents" [ling-kuan] in all these texts are anonymous. They
stand for a category of divinities which operate as executive forces, being
obedient to superior divine charges which, as we have seen, may be geo¬
graphic potentials. 30
These executive Magic Agents eventually were entrusted with the
proper operation of temples, which malignant forces or wrongdoers may
attempt to visit and molest. The Lu-i chi by Tu Kuang-t'ing reports about
the Chen-chün Temple (miao) of the "Investigation Commissioner of the
Nine Heavens" at Mt. Lu in Chiang-hsi province, where either one or
2' TT 1032: 79.10b.
28 TT 335: hsü la.
29 rprp ggg. J4 jj^-lb. Conceming this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-
tsang t'i-yao, p. 253; no. 0334.
3" See above concerning Mt. Ho.
more unnamed ling-kuan used to catch any vile and dirty element inside
the temple and expel it disgracefully. 3'
Reports ofthis sort can be adduced ad libitum, which says much about
the common presence of the notion of "Magic Agents". Speaking about
the text Tao-men ting-chih, we saw the distinct attempt at formulating a
system of categories. The renowned Sung-synthesis of the Taoist literary
traditions Yün-chi ch'i-ch'ien often mentions "Magic Agents". It may suf¬
fice to point to the section Hun-shen, ssu-shen chüeh ("Instructions on
the //mw-souIs and Meditation on the Spirits").This is just one of quite
a few pieces featuring Magic Agents. Here we learn that each of the
thirty-six heavens has "heavenly worthies", "superiors", "heavenly em¬
perors", "heavenly masters", whereas the different categories of "the earth" all have "generals ofthe Emperor ofthe Earth", "Divine Diamond Kings" and "Magic Agents". ^3 This assigns the ling-kuan to the sphere
"earth". However, there never was any exclusive or mandatory definition
that could have dominated the later traditions, and we already spoke
about the ling-kuan in other spheres of transcendent realities, like the
agents protecting the scripture Wu-yüeh chen-hsing t'u in the realm ofthe
female deity "Royal Mother ofthe West" {Hsi wang-mu).^*
Significantly starting in the Sung-period, and especially later during
the Yüan- and Ming-periods, individually named Magic Agents appear,
like the "Magic Agent, Marshal Ma" {Ling-kuan Ma yüan-shuai). This
divine marshal was a popular name, pointing to a frightening creature
with three eyes.^s We can also detect attempts at systematizing and in¬
corporating popular notions into Taoism. A good example of this are
those names which use the number "five" in order to represent the com¬
plete cosmos, like the "Five Great Heavenly Marshals of Magic Sight"
{Ling-kuan wu ta t'ien-shuai). The divinity Yüan-shih t'ien-tsun reveals
what these figures are up to. Being equipped with the essences ofthe five
31 TT 591: 4.5b. Concerning this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp. : Tao-tsang t'i- yao, p. 426; no. 0586. As to the "Commissioner", see F. C. Reiter: The "Investi¬
gation Commissioner of the Nine Heavens" and the beginning of kis cult in north¬
ern Chiang-hsi in 731 A. D. In: Oriens 31, pp. 266-289.
32 TT 1032: 55.1a sq. On the Yün-chi ch'i-ch'ien, see K. M. Schipper (ed.): Index du Yunji qiqian. Paris 1981.
33 TT 1032: 55.2a-2b. We do not think that the Yün-chi ch'i-ch'ien speaks about
a specific ling-kuan as the Index quoted above suggests ("Wang ling-kuan").
34 TT 1032: 79.8a sq. See above.
35 Rich information on this name is contained in Ma Shu-t'ien: Ch'üan-hsiang
chung-kuo san-pai shen, pp. 224-226.
breaths of the five stars they wield their almost unlimited power through¬
out the world. 36 The term ling-kuan "magic sight" (1) eventually was
exchanged for ling-kuan (2) "Magic Agent" as Yüan-shih t'ien-tsun intro¬
duces the name Ling-kuan (2) ta-sheng hua-kuang wu ta t'ien-shuai for
the divine forces just named. 3' These forces are bent on saving mankind,
and it is for this purpose that they adopt varying apparitions. "The
venerable saints of magic sight" are the "five marshals" in the heavens, in the world of man they are "five kings", being fierce and magic in a bril¬
liant way". 38 They may appear as "heavenly emperors of all the heavens",
or as Brahman-kings {Fan-wang ti-shen), as Bodhisattva Hua-kuang or
demigods {li-shih). Any apparition that suffices to help save the world
may do.39 Anyway, "all the great marshals, the Magic Agents of Ortho¬
doxy and Unity" {Cheng-i ling-kuan ...), were enfeoffed with the title of
honour Wu-hsien ling-kuan (1) ta-ti, according to another text of about
the same epoch (Sung/Yüan).*" The text for a "lantern ritual" mainly
involving these five deities, Wu-hsien ling-kuan ta-ti teng-i, links that
fivefold divine potential with the idea of a five times penetrating force
wu-t'ung.*^ The name and concept oi Wu-t'ung seems to have crept into
the Taoist tradition fairly late, and before that happened it may have
been connected with Buddhist elements.*2
All of this does not take us back to Wang ling-kuan or Wang Shan, but
reveals the fantastic range of religious imagination that the term or name
ling-kuan marks out. It is within this large frame that the collection Tao-
fa hui-yüan attaches a fairly distinct religious title, San-wu huo-chü ling-
kuan ("Magic Agent Fire Carriage of San-wu"), to the name of Wang
Shan. Here we also find Wang Shan as a "marshal" (yüan-shuai) with the
same specification as above. ''3 This entry allows us to understand the
36 TT 1448 T'ai-shang tung-hsüan ling-pao wu-hsien kuan hua-kuang pen-
hsing miao-ching 4a-4b. Concerning this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-
tsang t'i-yao, p. 1147; no. 1435.
3' TT 1448: 3b-4a.
38 TT 1192 Ta-hui ching-tz'u miao-lo t'ien-tsun shuo fu-te wu-sheng ching 5b.
39 TT 1448: 4a-4b.
40 TT 1192: lb. On this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p.
942; no.l 182.
TT 206 Wu-hsien ling-kuan ta-ti teng-i lb. For this text of the period
Yuan/Ming see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p. 147; no. 0205.
For this theme see U. A. Cedzich: Wu-t'ung, zur bewegten Geschickte eines
Kultes, pp. 33-60. In: G. Naundorf et al. comp.: Religion und Pkilosopkie in Ost¬
asien. Würzburg 1985.
43 TT 1220: 86.7a-7b; 8b (for the variant title: San-wu huo-chü Wang yüan-
type of divine force with which Wang Shan is assoeiated. Wang Shan
obviously belongs to the vast array of Thunder deities {lei-shen), which
this section of Tao-fa hui-yüan en passant describes.** We can conclude
that Wang Shan being an official of the sort kuan-chiang accompanies the
Thunder divinities of the five directions. They are functionaries ofthe one
breath ofthe Former Heaven {hsien-t'ien i-ch'i)^^
P. VAN DER Loon analysing the Tao-fa hui-yüan found a considerable
number of texts by Wang Wen-ch'ing (1093-1153), who appears to be one
ofthe more important names in sources for Thunder rituals.*6 Wang Wen-
ch'ing was a contemporary of the renowned Shen-hsiao specialist Lin
Ling-su.*'' The great involvement of Wang Wen-ch'ing in Thunder magic
is also attested in the report Ling-hui ch'ung-hsü t'ung-miao chen-chün
Wang Shih-ch'en chi. This text also connects Wang Wen-ch'ing with the
Taoist Sa Shou-chien (2nd half of 12th cent.). They met on Mt. Ch'ing-
ch'eng near the present city of Ch'eng-tu in Szechwan province. We learn
that Sa Shou-chien was entrusted with the methods of Thunder magic. **
It is his biography that describes the story of Wang Shan {ling-kuan) and
his connection with the tradition of Thunder magic.*9 The biography Sa
Shou-chien reveals the worldly engagements of the Thunder deity "San-
shuai). Concerning this text (14th cent.) see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang
t'i-yao, pp. 961-962; no. 1209. The best study so far on Tao-fa hui-yüan is P. van
DER Loon: A Taoist Colleclion of the Fourteenth Century, pp. 401-405. In: W.
Bauer convp.: Studia Sino-Mongolica. Wiesbaden 1979: Münchener Ostasiatische
Studien, vol. 25.
44 rpqi 1220: 86.1a sq. (Hsien-t'ien lei-ching yin-shu), esp. see ch. 86.6b/10 sq.
*5TT 1220: 86.6b.
*8 P. VAN DER Loon: A Taoist Collection of the Fourteenth Century, p. 402.
*' P. VAN DER Loon: p. 403. Also see J. M. Boltz: A Survery of Taoist Litera¬
ture, pp. 26-27. P. VAN DER Loon gives the date 1075-1119 for Lin Ling-su. Con¬
cerning Lin Ling-su, he took Emperor Sung Hui-tsung on a spiritual tour to the
heavenly residence Shen-hsiao where the emperor is said to have lived before
taking up his duties down on earth, see e. g. TT 176 Hsüan-feng ch'ing-hui lu
6a.
*8 Ling-hui ch'ung-hsü t'ung-miao chen-chün Wang Shih-ch'en chi 228 sq.,
especially see p. 229 (for Sa Shou-chien). In: Tao-yüan hsüeh-ku lu ch. 25 (ed.
SPTK). Concerning the identity of Wang Shih-ch'en with Wang Wen-ch'ing, see
e. g. TT 1476 Sou-shen chi 2.22a.
49 rprp Li-shih chen-hsien t'i-tao t'ung-chien hsü-pien 4.1a-3a. Concerning
this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p. 221; no. 0296. The
Taoist priest Chao Tao-i (end of 13th cent.) is the author of TT 297. The transla¬
tion of the biography of Sa Shou-chien follows.
wu huo-chü ling-kuan Wang Shan", which we know from the collection Tao-fa hui-yüanß^
The biography of Sa Shou-chien:'^'
«The adept Sa was named Shou-chien and hailed from Nan-hua. Some
other source has it that Sa Shou-chien was a man from Hsi-ho. He called
himself 'visitor Sa from Fen-yang'.^^ When he was young he was bent on
helping others and profitting the creatures. Once he studied for the medi¬
cal profession and by mistake used a medicine which killed the client.
Following this [mishap] he gave up the medical profession.
Learning that the 30th Heavenly Master [Chang] Hsü-ching-''^ in
Chiang-nan and his two excellent attendants Lin [Ling-su] and Wang
[Wen-ch'ing] were outstanding as to their Taoist methods, he desired to
study them. [Thus] he [wanted to] leave Shu and started on his way to
Shensi. When the bag with his travel provisions was empty he sat down
on a rock and was depressed. Suddenly he saw three Taoists approaching
him. Sa Shou-chien asked them about the distance from where he was to
Hsin-chou.5* The Taoists then enquired about his intentions. Sa Shou-
chien replied that he wished to visit the Heavenly Master Hsii-ching in
order to join the master as student ofhis Taoist methods. The Taoists told
him that the Heavenly Master had already died. Sa Shou-chien then really
felt disappointed.
One of the Taoists said : "The Taoist methods of the present Heavenly
Master are also very outstanding, and I do have an old connection with
him. I should write something for you, so you can go and see [the Heav¬
enly Master]. I do have one [Taoist] method which I can give to you. By
this method you can provide for yourself a day's [provision]." So he trans¬
mitted to Sa Shou-chien the skill {shu) of casting a spell on jujubes, say¬
ing: "Speak the formula on one jujube, and seven jujubes a day [can be
60 TT 1220: 86.7a-7b.
s' TT 297: 4.1a-3a.
52 Fen-yang district is located in Shansi province, see Chung-hua jen-min kung-
ho kuo fen-sheng ti-t'u chi 18, D3, Peking 1974. However, according to this bio¬
graphy Sa Shou-chien must have lived in Szechwan when he made his decisive
encounters.
53 TT 1463 Han t'ien-shih shih-chia 3.1b-6b. Concerning this text (Ming) see
Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, pp. 1156-1157; no. 1450. Also see J. M.
Boltz: A Survey of Taoist Literature, p. 48.
54 In present Szechwan province, see Chung-kuo ku-chin ti-ming ta tz'u-tien.
Taipei 1972, p. 578.3-4.
obtained]. Speak the formula on ten jujubes, and seventy jujubes can be obtained. Thus the provision for one day will be available."^^
The other Taoist said: "I also have one [Taoist] method which I can
pass on to you." He gave Sa Shou-chien one single fan and said: "In case
there is any sick person, just fan the client and immediate cure will be
effected."
The other [third] Taoist said : "I also do have one [Taoist] method which
I can give to you, and this is the Thunder method."''s
Sa Shou-chien reverentially received these methods. When he used
them, they all proved to be effective. In one day he generally cast the
spell and got more than one hundred jujubes, but he took only seventy for
his own daily use. So he repeatedly helped the poor, using what was left
over.
When he reached Hsin-chou he visited the Heavenly Master and hand¬
ed over the letter [which one of the Taoists had given to him]. The whole
family [ofthe Heavenly Master] was excited and cried, because the letter
was done in the handwriting of the 30th Heavenly Master himself In that
letter he said "together with the attendant Lin and the attendant Wang
I happened to meet someone named Sa. Each of us transmitted to him one
[Taoist] method. He can be given the literary [instructions] which are not
yet complete. "5^ From then onwards the Taoist methods of Sa Shou-chien
became illustrious.
Once he stayed somewhere for a couple of days at the temple ofthe god
of the City Walls {Ch'eng-huang)ß^ The prefect there dreamt of the god
55 J. M. Boltz: A Survey of Taoist Literature, p. 270/note 106 draws attention to Teng Chih-mo's (fl. 1596-1603) Sa chen-jen te-lao chu-tsao chi, whieh obviously
concentrates on this theme. According to this reference work Sa Shou-chien also
figures in the anonymous Yiian-play Sa chen-jen yeh-tuan pi-t'ao hua (texts not
seen). See the same: The Rites of Wang Ling-kuan: The Legitimation of a Local
Healing Cult. In: A. Wezler/ E. Hammerschmidt (edd.): Proceedings of the 32nd
ICANAS Hamburg 1986 (ZDMG-Supplement 9), Stuttgart 1992, p. 578.3-4. This
abstract follows quite a different line of interpretation, mainly on the basis of
sueh later traditions.
56 This encounter happened on Mt. Ch'ing-ch'eng (Szechwan), see TT 1463 Han
t'ien-shih shih-chia 3.6a, where a date for the encounter is indicated: shao-hsing
hsin-yu (1141, which contradicts the number 16, pointing to 1146).
57 TT 1476 Sou-shen chi 2.25a (Sa Shou-chien) seems to say that Sa Shou-chien,
having received those three methods, was to be accepted and registered as an
accomplished Taoist.
58 We observe that the text does not indicate the location, see our concluding
interpretation. Concerning the god of the City Walls Ch'eng-huang (and the God
ofthe City Walls who addressed him saying: "The Taoist Sa [Shou-chien]
has been staying here [in my temple] for a couple of days and is disquiet¬
ing my living quarters. You are obliged to send him away for my sake."
The prefect went to the temple, expelled Sa Shou-chien and made him
leave the place. Sa Shou-chien had walked away for about ten miles when
he met a person who carried a pig on the way to that temple in order to
make an offering [in return for a favour]. Sa Shou-chien gave him some
additional incense and said: "Go and make your offering, and after that,
on my behalf you put this incense into the incense burner and light it."
That person performed [the offerings] according to the rules of proper
conduct. Quickly there was just one sound of thunder, and fire burnt
down the temple. However, the fire did not extend to burn down the
living places of the common people.
More than three years later Sa Shou-chien came to a ford where nobody
was around to punt the ferry boat. So he handled the bamboo pole to cross
[the water] by himself and then put three pieces of cash into the boat to
compensate the price for the transport [across the water]. He took some
water with both his hands to wash them, [but suddenly] he saw a man.
Standing in the water he wore an iron helmet, a red robe and in his hands
he grasped a jade ax. Sa Shou-chien reproached him saying: "What a man
are you? Immediately let me see your full appearance." So that man came
to stand at his side and replied:
"I am Wang Shan, that god of the City Walls. It happened some time
ago that [you] perfected official had my temple burnt down. My family
members, counting more than three hundred, are [now] without anything
to rely upon. I really was without any guilt. I filed this matter [at the
heavenly office of] the Supreme Emperor (Shang-ti). The Supreme Em¬
peror granted me [the use of] this jade ax and ordered me to follow you.
When [you] the perfected official should commit any crime against the
heavenly laws, I should let you conveniently have your way and after¬
wards file [an appropriate] report. For three years I have been following
[you] perfected official, and all the time there was no single case of any
offense against the laws. Today, crossing on the ferry boat [you] perfected
official still deposited cash on the boat. Thus there was not any point of
time when I could have taken revenge. Today I desire to be your Troop
Commander {pu-chiang) and assist you in the execution of your ritual
orders (fa-chih)."
of the Soil, T'u-ti shen) see e. g. the expositions in Sung Hui-yao chi-kao as pre¬
sented in K. Fukui et al. comp.: Dökyö. Tokyo 1983, vol. 2, pp. 189-191.
Sa Shou-chien said: "[Again] following me three years more, it also will
be just like that." After this Sa Shou-chien petitioned to the Jade
Emperor to have the man selected as his Troop Commander. Whenever
[Sa Shou-chien] issued [his ritual orders] the response [and effects] follow¬
ed just like an echo.
Once he had a poem which said^^:
"The Taoist methods are within the body,
Do not idlely wait.
Investigate your thoughts and discipline your behaviour,
Penetrate your mind, unpretendingly.
In one thousand years iron trees
Open blossoms, easily.
One single day at Feng-tu^o
Surpasses all the troubles ofthe world."
Another poem says:
"The words are pure, [but] the behaviour is filthy.
Stop talking about Tao.
Do not care for the laws of Heaven,
[But] regulate insulting behaviour.
Only rely on your genuine allotment,
Let your divine agents and vital energies be in peaceful condition.
How could it [then] occur to you
That the City ofthe Immortals should not register your name?"^'
The adept [Sa Shou-chien], having attained Tao, travelled through [the
region of] Min.^^ Qne day, sitting upright he passed away.»
59 Or translate: "Once there was the poem ..."
60 This name points to the infernal regions. See e. g. Ch. Mollier: La methode
de l'empereur du Nord du Mont Fengdu, une tradition exorciste du Taoisme
medieval, pp. 329-385, esp. 337 sq; 345 sq.
6' No author is indicated, but the context should suggest the authorship of Sa
Shou-chien. However, we notiee that the poems seem to convey the flair of
Ch'iian-chen literature, which was quite current at the time of Chao Tao-i {13th
cent.), the author of TT 297.
62 This stands for Fukien. Hung Mai (Sung) reports that "the Taoist Sa from Shu
[Szechwan] who lodged in Ch'ao-chou made himself a name with his Taoist skills
(tao-shu). He had hundreds of followers who accompanied him on his travels [in
Fukien]", see Hung Mai: I-chien [chih], chih-wu. Peking: Chung-hua Comp. 1982,
vol. 3, ch. 1, p. 1054 (Liu Huang erh tao-jen).
The much later edition of the title Sou-shen chi in the Taoist Canon
contains the biography Sa chen-jen [Sa Shou-chien], which in most parts
confirms the information which we already have.^^ However, there are
some different statements which we should take notice of
Meeting the three Taoists Sa Shou-chien learns successively and ex¬
plicitly that the Heavenly Master Hsii-ching and the two Taoists Wang
Shih-ch'en and Lin Ling-su are already dead.^* Following the translated
biography, however, the three men did not introduce themselves to Sa
Shou-chien. We understand that they were sublimated apparitions of
those three Taoists whom Sa Shou-chien originally wished to visit. The
diction of the Sou-shen chi in this point is different, concerning Wang
Wen-ch'ing and Lin Ling-su.The Sou-shen chi also has significant differ¬
ences in the report about Sa Shou-chien's encounter with Wang Shan.^^
«When Sa Shou-chien came to the pontoon bridge at Hsiang-yin
district^'', he saw people who were about to sacrifice young boys and girls
to the god of the local temple. The adept Sa Shou-chien said: "This type
[of god] is a lewd spirit. I should love to burn down his temple." As these
words were spoken, the fire of lightning swept through the void, and the
temple immediately burnt down. After that the adept reached Lung-hsing
prefectures^ where he washed his feet at the side of the river [Ch'ang-]
chiang. [In a moment] there was the shadow of a divine agent {shen-ying)
in the water, a square face, yellow scarfs and golden armour. His left hand
covered his face with a sleeve, and his right hand held a whip.
The adept asked: "What a spirit agent are you?" The reply was: "I am
Wang Shan, the god of the temple at Hsiang-yin [district]. Since my
temple had been burnt down by the adept I have been following you for
twelve years. I was only waiting for you to commit a fault, and so I could
take revenge for your former deed. Today [I see that] the meritorious
efforts ofthe adept are outstanding, being attached as official to the Pivot
of Heaven (t'ien-shu). I hope that you petition to have me installed as
your Troop Commander."
63 TT 1476: 2.24a-26a. Concerning this text (16th cent.) see Jen Chi-yü et al.
comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p. 1168; no. 1463.
64 TT 1476: 2.'24b/4 sq.
65 TT 1476: 2.24b.
66 TT 1476: 2.25b.
67 In present Hunan province, see Chung-hua jen-min kung-ho kuo fen-sheng ti-
t'u chi. Peking 1974, p. 77, C5.
68 In present Szechwan province, see Chung-hua jen-min kung-ho kuo fen-
sheng ti- t'u chi, p. 118, C5.
The adept replied: "You are a cruel and wicked spirit agent {shen). Par¬
ticipating in my performances of ritual methods you must be detrimental
to my efforts." The spirit ofthat temple [Wang Shan] immediately swore
that he would not dare to turn against the contract [of acting as Troop
Commander]. The adept Sa Shou-chien thereupon sent a petition to the
divine emperors to grant him that status."
This text also notes that shortly before his death apparitions of heav¬
enly generals and messengers enfeoffed Sa Shou-chien as "Adept Leader
of the Ranks at the Pivot of Heaven" {T'ien-shu ling-wei chen-jen).^^
These two biographies of Sa Shou-chien are indeed very useful for a
description ofthe genesis ofthe Magic Agent Wang [Shan]. Sa Shou-chien,
who failed as a physician, sets out on the Taoist career and is successful.
The encounter with those three Taoist apparitions does prove this suc¬
cess. It is interesting to note that the three Taoist magi combine the tra¬
ditions of the old Heavenly Masters' Taoism (Cheng-i) with the skills of
Shen-hsiao and Thunder rituals, which were especially current at that
time. Sa Shou-chien thus becomes an exponent of the Thunder magic,
which is not only evidenced by the destruction of a lewd cult by means
of Thunder magic with its thunder and lightning effects. He also signs for
literary documents, especially a description of the very nature of Thun¬
der magic, Lei-shuo ("A Discourse on Thunder [Magic]"), besides some
other contributions. '0
Anyway, his biographies contain a most rewarding topic, which is the
displacement of an unruly god. This topic documents the constant at¬
tempt of the established religious Taoism to support "correct" cults, and
indeed the most disagreeable sacrifice of boys and girls to a local god is
anything but correct and supportable." On the other hand, the displaced
god of the City Walls does not stand for a lewd cult. The locally based
69 TT 1476: 2.26a.
70 TT 1220 Tao-fa hui-yüan 67.1 la-18a. Most Hkely TT 1220: 67.18a-20a, the
Hsü feng-yü lei-lien shuo, is to be included. Sa Shou-chien again signs explicitly for op. cit. 67.20a-21a (Nei-t'ien kang-chüeh fa). We notice that this collection
subsequently offers extended contributions about the Thunder magic by Wang
Wen-ch'ing, starting with a second title Lei-shuo, TT 1220: 67.21a sq. See
below.
" Generally on this theme see R. A. Stein: Religious Taoism and Popular Reli¬
gion from the Second to Seventh Centuries, pp. 53-81; and also H. Miyakawa:
Local Cults around Mount Lu at the Time of Sun En's Rebellion, pp. 83-101, both
articles are contained in: H. Welch and A. Seidel (edd.): Facets of Taoism, essays
in Chinese religion. London 1979.
divinity Ch'eng-huang belongs to those forces which a Taoist priest might
fmd necessary to employ for ritual means.However, Sa Shou-chien com¬
mands the superior forces of the Thunder potentials or divinities {lei-
shen), which are not restricted to local boundaries so to speak. The dis¬
placed god Ch'eng-huang takes the chance to sue Sa Shou-chien at the
heavenly court of justice and is allowed to bring the Taoist to justice, in
case of any fault which he might commit. Any attempt to take revenge,
however, fails as Sa Shou-chien shows an impeccable demeanour. We
notice that we do not get any hint concerning the geographic location of
that displaced god Ch'eng-huang, who eventually reveals his identity as
"Wang Shan", whereas the lewd cult also being identified with "Wang
Shan" had been spotted clearly.
In both stories Wang Shan surrenders to the spiritual might of Sa Shou-
chien and becomes his "Troop Commander", promising to play a positive
but subordinate part in rituals performed by Sa Shou-chien. This means
that within the range of Sa Shou-chien's ritual or exorcist efforts Wang
Shan does help to execute ritual orders. We know that it is the "Thunder
Magic" that defines the activities of Sa Shou-chien. The Taoist experi¬
ences an appropriate and specific elevation to a divine rank shortly
before his death. It is hardly astonishing that Wang Shan justly figures
amongst those heavenly martial forces {chiang-kuan) of Thunder deities
{lei-shen) that the Tao-fa hui-yüan documents. ^3
Wang Shan's divine title San-wu huo-chü ling-kuan''* contains the indi¬
cators ofhis power as a Thunder deity, which is the "Fire Carriage" repre¬
senting the fire of lightning. The numbers "three [and] five" {san-wu) are
quite suggestive. Various possibly corresponding elements can be found,
like the three basic constituents ofthe human nature, "spiritual forces",
"essences", "vital energies" (shen, ching, ch'i), or e. g. the "five elements"
(wu-hsing).'"^ The number "three", of course, may also stand for the "three worlds" (san-chieh) beside the "five directions" (wu-fang) where the Magic
Agent Wang can operate.In his tract Lei-shuo Sa Shou-chien in fact
explained the genuine connection between Taoist self-cultivation with all
those energetic and spiritual components, and the efTectuation of Thun-
72 E. g. see TT 1220 Tao-fa hui-yüan 86.7a.
73 TT 1220: 86.7a-7b; 8b.
74 TT 1220: 86.7a.
75 TT 1220: 67.12a,14a et al. (Sa Shou-chien: Lei-shuo).
76 TT 1220: 86.8b-9a. "Three" ean point to the three supreme deities San-ch'ing
("Three Pure Ones"). The spirit officials (ling-kuan and yüan-shuai) have to
suppress the demons on their behalf
der magic. He did not explicitly speak about the numbers "three [and]
five"."
However, we are fairly sure that for the Magic Agent Wang those
explanations apply which Wang Wen-ch'ing in his own Lei-shuo presents,
saying that "three times five" means "fifteen", and this is the very func¬
tional emblem ofthe "River Chart" {Ho-t'u). Wang Wen-ch'ing continues
to discuss the "Tao of Three-Five" {san-wu chih tao) and the connections
with the astral sphere of the Dipper {san-wu che tou chih miao-yung),
which is almost identified with the force of "lightning/Thunder" (Zei).'^ jf
we take this cosmic dimension into account which Wang Wen-ch'ing also
introduces using the terminology oi I-ching symbols,we understand that
the Magic Agent Wang [Shan] eventually came to overshadow Sa Shou-
chien, his former and worldly Taoist master. This is surely true in the
sense of the divine and martial part which "Wang ling-kuan" nowadays
visibly plays in the Taoist world.
All of this explains why the awful figures of the Magic Agent Wang are
installed to protect Taoist temples. Wang Shan, having turned to be a
positive and correct divine force, due to his encounter with Sa Shou-
chien, could return to an institution from which he once had been ex¬
pelled. In this sense it is interesting to witness, in Szechwanese temples,
the return of the flamboyant figures of Wang Shan, a "Protector of
Taoism" {Hu-fa shen) and very distinguished representative of the count¬
less and unnamed ling-kuan in the Taoist world of old.
77 TT 1220: 67.11a-18a; also see op. cit. ch. 67.18a-20a (Hsü feng-yü lei-tien
shuo).
78 TT 1220: 67.23b-24b (Lei-shuo). We notice that the source TT 1443 T'ai-
shang yüan-yang shang-ti wu-skih-t'ien tsun shuo huo-chü Wang ling-kuan chen-
ching, which we think to be later than Sung, attests the unique loyalty of Wang
Shan vis-a-vis Sa Shou-chien (p. 3a) and has Wang Shan head the forces of fire of
the star li of the "Southern Dipper" (p. 2a). This text already presents both
Taoists in heaven, acting as divine emissaries. Wang Shan asks for Sa Shou-chien
to be allowed to come along as his companion for a mission of salvation down on
earth. For this text see Jen Chi-yü et al. comp.: Tao-tsang t'i-yao, p. 1143; no.
1430. For rituals employing Wang Shan and Sa Shou-chien as divine patrons and
acting forces, see e. g. TT 1220: 241.1a sq.; 242.1a sq.
79 Concerning Ho-t'u ("River Chart") and I-ching ("Book of Changes"), and espe¬
cially a conclusive interpretation of the categories and numbers involved in these
two sources, see M. Granet (M. Porkert transi.): Das chinesische Denken -
Inhalt, Form, Charakter. München 1971, pp. 129 sq., pp. 134 sq., pp. 139 sq.
Glossary
Chai ^
Ch'an-hui MM
Chang Hsii-ching
Chang Wan-fu -j^MWi
Ch'eng huang
Cheng-i iE—
Cheng-i ling-kuan IE— M'B"
Ch'i-ch'ü -tft
Chung-hsiao lou f^-.^^
Fa-chih Fa-shih
Fan-wang ti-shen ^Bi'S^zS'
Feng-tu §m
Ho-t'u fSIl
Hsi wang-mu M3E^
Hsien-kuan fill's"
Hsien-kuan ch'i-shih-wu chiang-
chün lu iih'ä^i-^M^m
Hsien-t'ien i-ch'i 5'cA— Ä
Hu-fa shen Hua-kuang
Huang-lu ta-chai
Hun-shen ssu-shen chüeh
Huo-kan A'S"
I-ching
Kao-chen hsien-kuan j^Sflil'g'
K'ao-kuei ling-kuan ^M.M'^
Kao-kung ß^Xj]
Kuan
Kuan-chiang 'g'Jjf
Kuan-chün chiang-li "M^M^
Kuan-ti If-t^
Kuan-wang '^i
Kuei
Lei W
Lei-fa Lei-shen
Lei-shuo |||SJ.
Li-shih j'jdr Lin Ling-su
Ling-hui ch'ung-hsü t'ung-miao
chen-chün Wang Shih-ch'en chi
mmv^i&mimm^WMm
Ling-kuan (I) Mü
Ling-kuan (2) g'^
Ling-kuan wu-ta t'ien-shuai SMEAAB*
Miao m
Miao-hui P'an-kuan Pu-chiang
Sa Shou-chien j^^f ^
San-tung tao-shih H?|B|iMdr
San-wu HE
San-wu che tou chih miao-yung
^^^^-ztm
San-wu chih tao HEi^jS
San-wu huo-chü ling-kuan
HEA^at
Shang-ch'ing _h?#
Shang-ti ±^
Shen #
Shen, ching, ch'i
Shen-hsiao ft'H'
Shen-ying Shu ffi^
Shui-kuan 7jC'^
Ta-miao XM
Ta Ming Tao-tsang ching
xm'Mmm Tao-ch'ang
Tao-chün
T'ao Hung-ching B^Af:
Tao-shu Ti-kuan Jfe'g'
Ti-yü kuei-kuan itfe^^'g' T'ien-kuan A'B"
T'ien-shu AHM
T'ien-shu ling-wei chen-jen xmmitL^k
Tsui-lu kuan Pü'g'
Tsung-kuan '^"M
Tu Kuang-t'ing tt^tSl
Wang ling-kuan 3EM'^
Wang Shan iE#
Wang Wen-ch'ing i::i:FiP
Wen-ch'ang ti-chün Xs'^^
Wu-fang HJf
Wu-hsien ling-kuan ta-ti
EilSSA^
Wu-hsien ling-kuan ta-ti teng-
EÜSISA^Jll
Wu-hsing Ü^f
Wu-t'ung Eil
Ying-pi mm
Yü-ti
Yüan-ling chün tuS©
Yüan-shih t'ien-tsun TttaXM
Yüan-shuai jz^^
Ch'ien-lungs Kompilationsedikt
des Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu
Christoph Kaderas, Berlin
Einleitung
Der vorliegende Aufsatz setzt sieh mit dem Kompilationsedikt des Ssu-
k'u ch'üan-shu auseinander. Zunächst wird die Funktion dieser Monu¬
mentalsammlung kurz umrissen, um die Hintergründe des Ssu-k'u-Tro-
jekts besser verständlich zu machen. Darauf folgt die vollständige Über¬
setzung des Kompilationsedikts, das Kaiser Ch'ien-lung (reg. 1736-1796)
am 7. Februar des Jahres 1772' erlassen hat; der Text des Edikts wird in
einer eigens hierfür revidierten und annotierten Fassung der Übersetzung
nachgestellt. Obwohl dieses Edikt als ein Paradebeispiel für das kulturelle
Selbstverständnis und den politischen Machtanspruch chinesischer Mon¬
archen gelesen werden kann, gibt es hierfür in westlichen Sprachen noch
immer keine vollständige Übersetzung.^ Der Beitrag zielt somit darauf,
diese fraglos sehr bedeutende Primärquelle näher zu erläutern und einem
größeren Leserkreis zur Verfügung zu stellen.
Die Bedeutung des Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu
Das Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu gehört zu den wichtigsten Leistungen der chine¬
sischen Buchproduktion in vormoderner Zeit. Schon der Titel, der mit
' Cf. Kuno Ying-she [Hrsg.]: Ta Ch'ing shih-ch'ao sheng-hsün. Bd. 3. Hong
Kong: Ke-ta 1965, S. 574; zur Umrechnung des hierin enthaltenen Datierungsver¬
merks cf die Angaben in: Cheng He-sheng: Chin-shih chung-hsi shih-jih tui-
chao. Peiching: Chung-hua 1981, S. 513, und Fang Shih-ming [Hrsg.]: Chung-kuo
li-shih chi-nian piao. Shanghai: Shanghai tz'u-shu 1980, S. 146.
2 In seiner Studie The Emperor's Four Treasuries: Scholars and the State in the
Late Ch'ien-lung Era. Cambridge, Mass., und London: Harvard Univ. 1987 (s. S.
34-37), paraphrasiert R. K. Guy zwar verschiedene Abschnitte dieses Doku¬
ments; die von ihm angeführten Passagen sind aber sehr frei und zum Teil fehler¬
haft oder unzutreffend übertragen (beispielsweise datiert Guy das Kompilations¬
edikt irrtümlich auf das Jahr 1771).
