Towards the Notion of Health in the Vedic Phase of Indian Medicine
By Kenneth G. Zysk, Toronto
Evidence of the earliest phase of Indian medicine is found in the two
religious hymnals of the early Vedic period, the ^veda{KV) and the
AtharvavedaiAV) which at best estimates look back to a time of about
the second millennium B.C. in South Asia. The notion of health present¬
ed in these texts is two-fold. A rather general, non-descriptive expres¬
sion of wholeness of body and mind occurs with such words as svasti,
"well-being," and särvatäti (Avestan: ha''rvatät) "completeness;"
"soundness," which are found frequently and tend to refer to a general well-being, happiness and prosperity of all things, living and non-living.
A second, more specific meaning is ascertained by examining words
which are the negative of what was understood to be disease; for, as R.
F. G. Müller observes, "In der Vemeinung liegt aber die Betonung der
Ursache und damit ein Beginn von Überlegungen mit fachmäßigen
Wendungen".' These terms, therefore, provide a clear idea of health as
conceived in the context of the medical knowledge of the time.
The most frequently occurring expressions of health fall into three
broad categories as follows:
a. those which reflect a sound internal condition {an-amiva, a-
yalc^a and a-rapds);^
b. those which indicate a wholesome external state (an-äturä, a-ri^-
fdtäti and a-rapds);^ and
c. that which denotes detoxication (a-gada).
' Grundlagen altindischer Medizin. Halle 1942. (Nova Acta Leopoldina. Band 11, N. 74), p. 7.
^ For a full discussion of dmivä, ydk^ma and rdpas in the Rgveda and the
Atharvaveda, see my Early Vedic Ideas of Disease and Healing, with translations
and annotations of Medical Hymns from the Rgveda and the Atharvaveda. PhD
Thesis Australian Nat. Univ., Canberra 1981, pp. 130-141, 8-28 and 46-60,
respectively.
^ Cf. ibid., pp. 198-224.
anamivd
dmivä occurs often in the early Vedic literature. It is derived from the
verb ämäyati, "aches," "pains," "is diseased,"'' and signifies a disease-
demon which enters the domestic abode, seizing its inhabitants with
morbid bodily states.^ an-amwd, then, specifies a condition in which the
body is devoid of pain or disease caused by the demon dmivä. One not
affected by a curse or by witchcraft is said to rule his field free from dmi¬
vä ( AV 11.1.22). It is also a condition sought in a variety of things : cows
are requested to be devoid of dmivä at AV 3.14.3; Bfhaspati, at RV
10.98.3, is asked to grant speech that is free from dmivä for the purpose
of bringing rain (through sacred utterances). The fourteenth century
commentator, Säyana, suggests that here the defect of stuttering, etc.
(väco 'mivä nämä gadgadädido^ah) is meant by ämivä.^ The notion that
the mouth and organs of speech are to be free from pain and defect is
implied in this verse: since speech was such an important aspect of Ved¬
ic ritual, it is quite natural that the bodily organs performing these func¬
tions should be in perfectly sound working order. In the only such occur¬
rence in early Vedic literature, anamivä (fem.) is an epithet ofthe god¬
dess U§as, Dawn, at RV 10.35.6: anamivä u^dsa ä carantu na[h], "Let
the dawns, devoid of dmivä, approach us."' The sun's early moming
light, dispeller of the darkness and the noctumal demons dwelling
there, is free ofthe evil spirits which bring misery to the home (, benefi¬
cial, healthful) and repeatedly invoked (i.e. u^dsah, pl.). For this rea-
* See J. Narten: Ved. ämäyati und ämayävin-. In: Studien zur Indologie und
Iranistik 5/6 (1980), pp. 162-163, 165; cf especially her discussion of an-
ämayd, „ohne Schmerzen;" „ohne Krankheit," pp. 162-163. See also K. Hoff¬
mann: Materialien zum altindischen Verbum. In: J. Narten (ed.): Aufsätze zur
Indoiranistik. Bd. 1. Wiesbaden: Reichert 1975, pp. 291 f
' Similarly, R. Emmerick considers that it probably had the original mean¬
ing „seizure by a god", Indo-Iranian Concepts of Disease and Cure, unpublished paper delivered at the Intemational Conference on Traditional Asian Medicine, Canberra, Australia, Sept. 1979, p. 12.
' Cf also K. F. Geldner (trans.): Der Rig-Veda. Vol. 3. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard Univ. Pr. 1951, p. 309 n. 3, where he suggests an association with the healing voice (vox sana).
' Cf Renou, whose rendering gives the implied rather than the literal mean¬
ing: "Que procedent vers nous les aurores qui 6cartent la maladie, . . ." Fjtudes Vediques et Pänineennes (EVP). Tome 5. Paris: de Boccard 1959, p. 51; also EVP, T. 4 (1958), p. 113. Geldner, providing little insight into the meaning, trans¬
lates literally: "Ohne Krankheit sollen uns die U§as' kommen . . ." (op. cit.. Vol.
3, p. 196).
314 Kenneth G. Zysk
son, perhaps, dawn was considered to be an auspicious time to perform
healing rituals.*
In a series of hymns connected with the funeral service, the god of
death, Yama, is requested to assign well-being and anamivd to the dead
man (RV 10.14.11 = AV 18.2.12, etc.); and the non-widowed women
who participate in the funeral rites are required to be, among other
things, in a condition of anamivd (RV 10.18.7 = AV 12.2.31; 18.3.57;
etc.). It is evident that the body, in addition to those who came in con¬
tact with it, had to be pure and devoid of harmful spirits before the gods
would accept it.
Worshippers who were known to be devoid of dmivä were considered
to be most auspicious and to be possessed ofthe desired quality of long
life (AV 2.29.6; 30.3; 12.1.62). This is exemplified in RV 10.37.7:
Let us, who have good thoughts, who have good appearance, who are rich
with offspring, who are, 0 Sürya (Sun), without dmivä, sinless, alive, see you always, who have the majesty of Mitra, rising again day after day for a fong time.
Perhaps with a view towards insuring a long life, Rudra is requested to
visit amicably a friendly house and to grant the state of anamivd to
offspring (RV 7.46.3).'
It is significant that wholesome food was an important factor for the
maintenance of the condition of anamivä:
Let the non-injuring Agnis ofthe earth together with those ofthe slopes find favour with the sacrifice [and bestow] much food devoid of dmivä.'°
Sarasvati is requested to perform that same function at RV 10.17.8 and
likewise, Soma at RV 3.62.14.
* On medical rituals performed at dawn, see AV 2.8.1,2; 3.7.4,7; 5.23.6,7 (cf 2.32.1); 6.83.1; 9.8.22 and Kausika Sütra 26.42; 28.5; 31.28 and 32.10.
' Cf RV 7.54.1, where Västo^pati, the Lord of the house, is invoked to make the people free of dmivä.
RV 3.22.4. Renou renders: «Les Agni de la terra-firma, de concert avec les (Agni) des (riviöres) döclives, qu' ils appr6cient la sacrifice, eux qui sont sans tromperie, qui exemptent (l'homme) de maladies, (qui Equivalent ä) de grandes jouissances-rituelles!» (EVP. T. 12 1964, p. 65). Taking anamirn U) agree with agndyah, he assumes that the Agnis "exempt" man from the disease. This is indeed in accordance with one of the functions Agni performs as a healer-god, but it does not agree with the other occurrences of anamivd in proximity to i^as
found at RV 3.62.14: a(5mo . . .anamivä i^as fcaraiandatRV .%: sdrasvati
. . . anamivä i^a ä dhehy asme.
ayak^mä
The term yäk^ma occurs throughout the literature of the early Veda
and indicates the demonically caused disease, consumption or tubercu¬
losis. Its negative a-yaksma is also found and denotes the condition of
both the human and the bovine body in which consumption is not pres¬
ent. This negative expression is generally associated with the body of a
person who is free from distress, prosperious, dexterious and vivacious
(AV 4.25.5; 5.29.13). An important therapeutic means for bringing
about the healthy state exemplified by ayak^md was rain-water, which
is itself devoid of ydk^ma and thus able to dispel it, while at the same
time providing abundant food which (, giving strength to the sick and to
the healthy,) helps to prevent attacks from ydk^ma (RV 9.59.1; AV
3.12.9 = 9.3.23; 19.2.5). The healing plant goddess Arundhati was also
effective in helping the cows to produce milk and in making men free
from ydk^ma (AV 6.59.2). The connection between cows, which are free
from tuberculosis and which yield strength-giving milk, and healthy
men seems to be implied in this verse. There is, likewise, a relationship
between anamivd and ayak^md at AV 12.1.62, suggesting that whole¬
some food, when taken internally, was also an important factor in assur¬
ing the healthy condition implied by ayak§mä.
arapas
rdpas is a term which occurs often in the literature of the early Veda. It
is particularly difficult to ascertain its exact meaning because it is de¬
scribed in terms of both an intemal disease-demon associated with
ydksma and a morbid, external defect or affliction involving the limbs of
the body. Its negative, a-rapds, seems to indicate a state in which the
body exhibits a general condition of well-being and of wholeness: at RV
10.15.4 (= AV 18.1.51; etc.) and 10.37.11, it is closely associated in a
formulaic way with general good luck and well-being (sarn yör) ;" at RV
10.137.5 (= AV 4.13.4), the gods, the troop(s) of Mamts and all beings
are requested to rescue the sick man so that he may be devoid of rapas.
In verse three of the same hymn (= AV 4.13.3), the winds are said to
blow away rapas; similarly at RV 8.18.9 the winds bring about arapas
which, at RV 2.33.6, is associated with the shade which protects from
the sun's heat. These latter examples suggest that arapas may indicate
a state of recovery from exhaustion brought on by excessive exposure to
the sun (heat stroke?) and the remedy for which included fanning or
" On this formula, see F. Max MtJLLER: Vedic Hymns P. 1. 1891; rpt. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass 1973, pp. 109f
316 Kenneth G. Zysk
being placed facing a refreshing breeze. Finally, at AV 1.22.2, the
absence of rdpas is connected with a condition of the body in which
there is no jaundice (i. e. yellowness) present, suggesting that in such a
state was noticed limbs which were strong and sound, without any
defect.
anäturd
dtura has the non-specific meaning "suffering," "sick" (both of mind
and body)'^ and, when combined with the negative prefix an, signifies
"not sick" or healthy. More specifically, however, it seems to indicate
the absence of damage both to the living body and to inanimate
objects.'^ At RV 1.114.1, Rudra is presented hymns so that all the
grown ones {pu^td) in the village may be undamaged. As we have alrea¬
dy noticed, Rudra performed a similar function at RV 7.46.2; in that
case, however, he is requested to visit a friendly house and to make the
offspring there devoid of ämwä. At AV 12.2.49, a couch is said to bear
the well-minded ones who are without damage. Medicinal herbs (o^adJii)
are implored to make both the two-footed and the four-footed ones free
of any damage at RV 10.97.20. Finally, inanimate objects are described
as being devoid of damage (dtura) : at RV 10.94.1, the stones (ddri) used
in the pressing ofthe intoxicating Soma are said to be without damage;
and at RV 8.47.10, the protecting shelter (sarman) is characterised as
being, among other things, devoid of damage. From these latter refer¬
ences, anäturd implies the sense of wholeness or completeness: stones
which are not split or broken and a shelter which provides the utmost
protection by not being broken down or dilapidated give the best
results. When applied to the body of a human or of an animal anäturd
would, therefore, have the sense of wholeness, soundness — one which
has all its parts and is completely functional.
ari^fätäti
The word rißtatäti does not occur either in the Rgveda or in the Athar¬
vaveda; but the forms ri^td, etc. from the root ri^, "to hurt," "to injiu-e,"
are found.The negative, being an abstract noun derived from the past
participle of the root, therefore, has the sense of "unharmedness,"
" See M. Mayrhofer: Kurzgefaßtes etymologisches Wörterlmch des Altin¬
dischen (Wb). Bd. 1. Heidelberg: Winter 1956, p. 73.
Cf. H. Grassmann: Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda. Leipzig: Brockhaus 1873,
Col. 54 and Mayrhofer: Wb. Bd. 1. 1956, p. 514 under turäh. See also RV
8.20.26, 22.10, 72.17 and AV 6.109.2.
See Mayrhofer: Wb. Bd. 3. 1976, p. 62.
"uninjuredness," or more generally, wholeness, soundness, health. It
implies a eondition of dexterity and active life, devoid of any signs of
death, decay and consumption {ydksma) (RV 10.60.8-10; AV 4.13.5 =
RV 10.137.5; 6.19.2). Medicinal plants are used to restore one who has
been injured to such a healthy condition (RV 10.97.7). In particular the
healing plant goddess Arundhati, who is given the epithet "harmless"
(naghäri^ä) is several times called upon to perform this function (AV
8.2.6; 7.6.27). Likewise, plants were worn as amulets or burned asfumi-
gants in order to protect one from bodily misfortunes, to provide bodily
vigour (ojas) and to ensure uninjuredness to the body [AV 3.5.5; 8.5.20;
19.37.(2)3]. At AV 60.80.2, three gods in the form of stars (kälakänjd)
are called on for aid and to provide ari^tätäti to a man. This final cita¬
tion is an example of a prophylactic measure imploring a divine aster-
ism to grant guidance and protection from bodily harm to an individual
who is most probably about to undertake a joumey.
agada
The word g'acto first occurs in the later exegetical text, Satapatha Brah- mai)ja, and is common in treatises written in classical Sanskrit." In the ayurvedic medical tradition, it signifies "toxin". The only form encoun¬
tered in the Rgveda and Atharvaveda is its negation, a-gadd, which, from
the contexts we are about to examine, indicates in the first instance a
lack of poison in the body, but more generally the wholesome condition
of the body when the toxin has been removed." In the funeral hymns,
Agni is asked to make the body which has been bitten by the crow, the
ant, the snake or the beast of prey, devoid of gada (RV 10.16.6 = AV
18.3.55; etc). Similarly, the man, who has been made ill by the con¬
sumption of various tjqies of food or of water which have been contami¬
nated through witchcraft, is requested to be free from gada (AV 5.29.6-
9). Although it is not explicity equated with poison (vi^a),^^ the gada
naghärifä containing the root ri? has the literal meaning, "surely not (na- ghd) injuring (risa)," i.e. "harmless," and emphasises the benign quality ofthe medicine Arundhati.
" Cf. Renou: EVP. T. 14. 1965, p. 109.
" Cf J. Filliozat: La doctrine classique de la medecine Indienne; ses origines et ses paralleles grecs. Paris: Impr. nat. 1949, p. 43 and Mayrhofer: Wb. Bd. I.
1956, p. 320; see also Grassmann, op. cit., Col. 7.
When we examine the variant readings to the Atharvaveda as they are
found in the recensions ofthe Paippaläda (P) and of the Saunaka (AVS), there appears to be the implication that gadcfrdpas'vifa (poison): at P 5.18.5, agadois read for arapd in the corresponding AVS 4.13.4; and at P 1.111.1 vi^am replaces
23 ZDMG 135/2
318 Kenneth G. Zysk, Health in the Vedic Phase of Indian Medicine
mentioned in the above passages seems quite clearly to refer to illness
brought about by poison. The principal means of effecting agada, deto¬
xication, involved the use of medicinal herbs (o^adhi) (RV 10.97.2; AV
4.17.8; 6.95.3), one if the most efficacious being kii^tha (Saussurea
lappa) C. B. Clarke (AV 5.4.6).
Conclusions
We can see from the analysis of these words that rather than one
expression for a healthy, wholesome bodily condition sufficient for all
instances, there were many heatthy states, depending on the particular
afiliction eradicated. It was only in relation to a specific morbid bodily
condition that a notion of health in the medical context emerged. Health
in a positive sense does not occur in early Vedic medicine. This funda¬
mental dualism between disease and health, then, lies at the basis of
Vedic medical diagnosis and, along with the three-fold division accord¬
ing to types, illustrates the very beginnings of Indian scientific observa¬
tion and thought.
rdpas in the corresponding AV§ 6.91.2. The equation between vi^a and rdpas is
also implied at RV 7.50.3. In this way, we may have an indirect equation be¬
tween gada and vi^a, which becomes more direct in the later medical tradition of äyurveda. The equation involving rdpas, however, is more difficult because, as
we have seen, this expression of disease is characterised in different ways
depending on whether it is recognised as an internal disease entity or an exter¬
nal one. At RV 7.50, rdpas is conceived to be both the toxin and its vector, a noxious creature which attacks the limbs, causing them to swell at the joints, and releases its poison intemally, producing sjrmptoms which resemble exhaus¬
tion and consumptive bodily decay (See my Early Vedic Ideas of Disease and
Healing, pp. 46-49.).
Von Dieter M. Back, Freiburg/Br.
Dem VT. Dali Lama, Tsan dbyahs rgya mtsho (1683-1706), werden
eine Reihe von Gredichten zugeschrieben, die in ihrer Thematik eine
Freizügigkeit und Ehrlichkeit der Gefühle zeigen, wie man sie von
einem Dalai Lama so nicht erwarten würde. Kun Chang (1956) cha¬
rakterisiert sie als „simple, fresh, and artless, imbued with great feeling
for nature. They reveal the struggle between passions and propriety,
from which there is no respite."'
Die Anzahl der Gedichte wird unterschiedlich angegeben zwischen 53
und 66 sechssilbigen Vierzeilern, von ganz wenigen Sechszeilern abge¬
sehen.^
In den letzten Jahren sind in Indien zwei neue Ausgaben nebst Über¬
setzungen der Gedichte herausgekommen, die wegen ihrer Einleitungen
sehr wertvoll sind.* In jüngster Zeit sind auch eine russische und eine
' Kun Chang: On Tibetan Poetry. In: CAJ 2 (1956), S. 132. G. Tucci: Tibetan
Folk Songs from Gyantse and Westem Tibet. Ascona 1966, S. 14 spricht den
Gedichten trotz ilu-er Popularität „literary pretensions" zu, die für die Volks¬
dichtung sonst nicht üblich seien.
^ S. C. Das: An Introduction to the Grammar of Tibetan Language. Delhi ^1972,
gibt im Appendix IX eine Sammlung von 60 Versen. T. C. Yü/Y. R. Chao: Love
Songs of the 6"" Dalai Lama Tsan dbyans rgy mtsho. Peiping 1930, legen ilirer
Übersetzung einen Text von 66 Gedichten zugrunde. Diese Übersetzung war mir
leider nicht zugänglich. Die Sechszoiler sind — legt man den von Das herausge¬
gebenen Text zugrunde — die Gedichte Nr. 19, 44 und 50.
* K. Dhondup : Songs of the Sixth Dalai Lama. Dharamsala 1981. Er gibt eine
Auswahl von 59 Gedichten. G. W. Houston: Wings of the White Crane. Poems of
Tshan dbyans rgya mtsho [1683-1706). Delhi 1982 mit einer Einleitung von
H. Hoffmann. Er gibt eine Auswahl von nur 53 Gedichten. Houston benutzte
neben dem Text von S. C. Das noch einen nicht näherhin bezeichneten Block¬
druck (S. X). Die Ausgabe ist sehr unsorgfältig gearbeitet, weil die Transkrip¬
tion meist ohne erkennbaren Grund nicht dem Dbu-can-Text entspricht. Manch¬
mal ist der Dbu-can-Text mit dem von Das (1972) identisch, manchmal nicht.
Eine vernichtende Kritik hat diese Ausgabe durch M. Richards in: The Tibet
Journal 8,4 (1982), S. 103-109 erfahren, auf die in ebenso kritischer Weise
G. Houston in: The Tibet Journal 9,1 (1984), S. 45-48 geantwortet hat. Des¬
gleichen gibt es eine Neuübersetzung dieser Gedichte von M. Tatz: Songs of the Sixth Dalai Lama. In: The Tibet Journal 6,4 (1981), S. 13-31.
23'
