For and against Winckelmann

Originalveröffentlichung in: Natter, Tobias G. (Hrsg.): Nude men : from 1800 to the present day ; [to accompany the Exhibition "Nude Men. From 1800 until the Present Day", 19 October 2012 - 28 January 2013, Leopold Museum, Vienna], München 2012, S. 56-65

Thomas Röske

For and Against Winckelmann

I. A n a c a d e m y p a i n t i n g

A s s e m b l e d i n a d i m l y lit, w i n d o w l e s s r o o m is a g r o u p of m e n clad i n late e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y garb, l o o k i n g o n m o r e or less a t t e n t i v e l y as t h e raised w r i s t of t h e u n c l o t h e d m o d e l seated at right is i n s e r t e d i n t o a sling h a n g i n g f r o m t h e ceiling; a second n u d e i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d a p p e a r s t o be p r e p a r i n g himself for similar t r e a t m e n t . J o h a n n Zof fany's Portraits of the Academicians ofthe Royal Academy of 1771/72 {Fig. 1) m i g h t at first glance be m i s t a k e n for t h e celebration of some m y s t e r i o u s ritual. Far f r o m b e i n g m e m b e r s of a n o b s c u r e sect, however, t h e m e n are a c t u a l l y m e m b e r s of t h e Royal Academy, c a p t u r e d at a key m o m e n t in w h a t w a s t h e n t h e Standard course of t r a i n i n g for artists: t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e m o d e l is p o s i t i o n e d ready for a n u d e study.1 Z o f f a n y t h u s chose as his motif t h e m o s t impor- t a n t skill r e q u i r e d for t h e g e n r e of h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g , w h i c h in t h o s e days w a s r a n k e d h i g h e r t h a n still life, landscape, p o r t r a i t , a n d g e n r e p a i n t i n g . T h i s w a s t h e h i e r a r c h y u p h e l d by t h e

academy's f o u n d e r s (assembled h e r e at left) a n d b y all t h o s e w h o t a u g h t t h e r e , i n c l u d i n g Z o f f a n y h i m s e l f , h e r e s h o w n seated at left, p a l e t t e i n h a n d . W h a t elevates his g r o u p p o r t r a i t t o a h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g is n o t least t h e f a c t t h a t its c o m p o s i t i o n w a s m o d e l e d o n Raphael's f r e s c o The School of Athens (1510-11).

T h e t h i r t y - t h r e e a c a d e m i c i a n s are g r o u p e d close t o g e t h e r b u t are singled o u t at t h e same t i m e . Is t h i s m e r e l y a c o n s e q u e n c e of Z o f f a n y ' s obsession w i t h m i n u t i a e , e v i d e n t i n several o t h e r w o r k s of his? O r is h e t r y i n g t o stress t h a t t h e s e are all individuals, engaged i n a discussion of some w e i g h t y m a t t e r ? T h e second n u d e m o d e l is p o r t r a y e d s t a r i n g o u t of t h e canvas in a w a y t h a t suggests t h a t w e , too, are e x p e c t e d t o t a k e a s t a n d .

II. Bildung—the ideal of c u l t i v a t i o n

T h e p a i n t i n g m a r k s a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of L o n d o n s Royal A c a d e m y of Arts, w h i c h h a d b e e n f o u n d e d just a f e w y e a r s earlier in 1768. H a v i n g moved i n t o its n e w premises in t h e recently completed Somerset H o u s e in late 1771, it n o w b o a s t e d a prestigious address o n t h e b a n k s of t h e T h a m e s . This, to Z o f f a n y ' s m i n d , p r e s e n t e d a n ideal o p p o r t u n i t y n o t only to h i g h l i g h t t h e principles of t h e t r a i n i n g p r o v i d e d b y t h e A c a d e m y a n d t h e long t r a d i t i o n u n d e r p i n n i n g t h e m , b u t also,

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Fig. 1

Johann Z o f f a n y

P o r t r a i t s of t h e Academicians of t h e Royal A c a d e m y in London, 1 7 7 1 / 7 2 T h e Royal C o l l e c t i o n , Her M a j e s t y Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h II

Left:

A n t o n von M a r o n

Johann Joachim W i n c k e l m a n n , 1 7 6 8 (detail) K l a s s i k S t i f t u n g W e i m a r / M u s e e n

by b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r so m a n y i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t s in a Single w o r k , t o raise art's Standing as a n h o n o r a b l e profession. T h e p u r p o s e a n d relevance of t h e m a l e n u d e are here b e i n g debated at t h e h i g h e s t level.

H a v i n g lost g r o u n d to t h e f e m a l e n u d e p r e f e r r e d b y Late B a r o q u e a n d R o c o c o artists, t h e m a l e n u d e did i n d e e d e n j o y s o m e t h i n g of a Comeback s t a r t i n g i n t h e seventeen- sixties. M o s t of t h e m a l e f i g u r e s d e p i c t e d w i t h o u t clothes w e r e c h a r a c t e r s f r o m C h r i s t i a n or p a g a n m y t h o l o g y . T h e p u r p o s e , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t t o e m b o d y t h e ideal v i r t u e s of t h e r i e h a n d p o w e r f ul; society h a d b e c o m e t o o m o b i l e a n d t o o middle-class f o r t h a t . T h e s e n u d e m e n w e r e r a t h e r figures of p r o j e c t i o n for e a c h i n d i v i d u a l v i e w e r a n d as s u c h w e r e s u p p o s e d t o e d u c a t e a n d t o edify.2T h e n u d e s of G r e e k a n d R o m a n A n t i q u i t y , b r o u g h t b a c k t o life b y t h e a r t i s t s of t h e R e n a i s s a n c e a n d t h e B a r o q u e era, w e r e once a g a i n elevated t o t h e ideal t h a t all a r t i s t s s h o u l d aspire to.

T h i s r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t i n Classical s t a t u a r y c a n be t r a c e d b a c k t o J o h a n n J o a c h i m W i n c k e l m a n n (1717-1768), w h o in 1755 p u b l i s h e d h i s g r o u n d b r e a k i n g Gedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bild­

hauerei? H i s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y a r t i s t s m o d e l t h e i r w o r k s o n t h e s c u l p t u r e s of A n c i e n t Greece w a s b a s e d o n a p e r e e p t i o n of t h o s e w o r k s as e m b o d y i n g t h e ideal w h o l e m a n . H e e m p h a s i z e d t h e w a y t h e p a r t s of t h e b o d y w e r e b a l a n c e d i n b o t h size a n d p o s i t i o n , a n d rejected

categorically b o t h i n d i v i d u a l p r o p o r t i o n s a n d t h e v i s u a l i z a t i o n of s t r o n g e m o t i o n s . T h e "noble simplicity a n d serene g r a n d e u r "

t h a t he i d e n t i f i e d as t h e " d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e G r e e k m a s t e r p i e c e s " w e r e t o be f o u n d i n b o t h " p o s t u r e a n d expression."4 W i n c k e l m a n n ' s f riend, t h e p a i n t e r A n t o n Raphael M e n g s (1728-1779), t o o k t h i s to h e a r t i n w o r k s s u c h as

Perseus and Andromeda (1773-78), i n w h i c h t h e n u d e f i g u r e of P e r s e u s is m o d e l e d o n t h e Apollo Belvedere (ca. 3 5 0 - 3 2 5 BC, R o m e , M u s e i Vaticani), a s t a t u e m u c h r e v e r e d b y t h e G e r m a n scholar.5

W i n c k e l m a n n ' s n e x t b o o k , a m u c h larger a n d m o r e a m b i t i o u s h i s t o r y of a n c i e n t a r t called Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums (1764), soon b e c a m e a E u r o p e a n bestseller, a n d excerpts f r o m t h e same in t r a n s l a t i o n w e r e p r i n t e d for e x a m p l e i n several E n g l i s h n e w s p a p e r s .6I n t h i s w o r k , as i n h i s first treatise, W i n c k e l m a n n t r e a t e d t h e artf ul r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e m a l e b o d y i n Classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c Greece as a r e f l e c t i o n of w h a t w a s t h e n reality, a n d r e p e a t e d l y i d e n t i f i e d f r e e d o m as t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r e c o n d i t i o n of s u c h b o d i e s a n d of such art. This, of course, w a s also a n o b l i q u e w a y of c r i t i e i z i n g h i s o w n , u n r e f o r m e d times.7T h e Age of Pericles w a s singled o u t for special praise, w h i c h is w h y his e n c o m i u m t o b e a u t i f u l m a l e b o d i e s w i t h t h e i r passions stoically r e i n e d in w a s also p o p u lä r i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y France. T h e resolute c o m p o s u r e of t h e figures i n t h e canvases of Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) is proof of this. T h e poses of t h e h e r o e s i n h i s m o n u m e n t a l Intervention of the Sabine Women (1799; Fig. 2), despite t h e h i g h

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The Intervention of the Sabine Women, 1799 Musee du Louvre, Paris

d r a m a of t h e a c t i o n , even look light-hearted, m o r e like boys f i g h t i n g in f u n .

T h e ideal of c o m p o s u r e ("Just as t h e d e p t h s of t h e o c e a n are e t e r n a l l y p e a c e f u l n o m a t t e r h o w fierce t h e t e m p e s t o n t h e surface, so it is t h a t t h e statues of t h e G r e e k s express n o b i l i t y a n d r e s t r a i n t even in suffering"8) w a s also t h e ideal u n d e r p i n n i n g W e i m a r Classicism a n d h e n c e t h e W e i m a r p r i z e f o r draf t s m a n s h i p a w a r d e d u n d e r t h e aegis of J o h a n n W o l f­ g a n g G o e t h e f r o m 1799 t o 1805. T h e a r t i s t s t o e n j o y G o e t h e ' s e s t e e m w a s t h e Neoclassicist A s m u s Jacob C a r s t e n s (1754­98), w h o s e Embarkation of Megapenthes (1794; Fig. 3), r e w o r k e d

i n n u m e r a b l e t i m e s , f e a t u r e s a p l e t h o r a of male n u d e s c o m b i n ­ i n g M i c h e l a n g e l e s q u e physicality w i t h W i n c k e l m a n n ­ s t y l e e m o t i o n a l restraint.9Even F r i e d r i c h Schinkel's p a i n t i n g View of the Flower of Greece of 1825 (Fig. 4), w h i c h is k n o w n t o us o n l y t h r o u g h W i l h e l m A h l h o r n s copy a n d shows m e n in

" h e r o i c n u d i t y " b u i l d i n g a t e m p l e of v i r t u e , c a n still be regard­

ed as a w o r k t h a t is b o t h e d i f y i n g a n d e d u c a t i n g i n t h e sense i n t e n d e d by W i n c k e l m a n n .1 0S c h i n k e l (1781­1841) w a n t e d t h e h a r m o n y of m a n a n d n a t u r e t h a t he believed to have prevailed i n t h e Age of Pericles t o serve as a m o d e l for t h e Prussia of h i s o w n age. H i s l a n d s c a p e , h e said, s h o w e d a ' " h i g h l y developed p e o p l e ' living i n peace a n d u s i n g t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t in order to create a ' h e i g h t e n e d e n j o y m e n t of life for t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e people as a whole.'"1 1D r u d g e r y h e r e looks n o w o r s e t h a n a w o r k ­ o u t i n p u r s u i t of a p e r f e c t l y t o n e d body.

N o w h e r e did t h e G r e e k m o d e l h a v e a m o r e i m p o r t a n t role t o play t h a n at t h e great a r t a c a d e m i e s . A s i n t h e seven­

t e e n t h Century, a c a d e m y s t u d e n t s w e r e a l l o w e d t o d r a w f r o m life o n l y a f t e r t h e y h a d s h a r p e n e d t h e i r p o w e r s of p e r c e p t i o n by d e v o t i n g a considerable a m o u n t of t i m e t o t h e i n ­ d e p t h s t u d y of a n c i e n t models; h e n c e t h e large c o l l e c t i o n s of plaster­

cast copies held b y m o s t i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h a t t h e b u d d i n g a r t i s t s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e n o t e n t i r e l y c o n v i n c e d b y t h i s m e t h o d is b o r n e o u t by a 1779 d r a w i n g b y E d w a r d F r a n c i s B u r n e y (1860­1848) called The Antique School at Old Somerset House, i n w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t s p o r i n g over t h e i r d r a w i n g b o a r d s a n d t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r s clad i n f a d e d blue or y e l l o w f r o c k coats are all b u t d w a r f e d b y t h e l a r g e r ­ t h a n ­ l i f e s t a t u e s i n a r ä n g e of heroic poses f i l l i n g t h e h i g h , d u s t ­ l a d e n h a l l . T h a t t h e t e a c h i n g h e r e has lost all t o u c h w i t h r e a l i t y n e e d s n o f u r t h e r c o m m e n t .

A n o t h e r w o r k w i t h a n ironic t a k e o n t h e a c a d e m y w a s p r o d u c e d some f o r t y years later by t h e a r t Student C h r i s t e n Kobke (1810­48), w h o b y t h i s t i m e h a d a l r e a d y w o n a d m i s s i o n t o t h e n u d e class. H i s y o u n g m a n s h o w n i n t h e C o p e n h a g e n academy's plaster­cast c o l l e c t i o n (page 173)12a p p e a r s t o have b e e n t e m p o r a r i l y o v e r t a k e n by t h e S t e n d h a l S y n d r o m e , psychic p r o b l e m s b r o u g h t o n by a n excess of h i g h art. T h e m a i m e d b o d y of Poseidon, w h o s e cast h e is s t a r i n g at, b e l o n g e d , like t h e o r i g i n a l f r i e z e above it, t o t h e Elgin M a r b l e s , w h i c h t h e British M u s e u m in L o n d o n h a d p u r c h a s e d just a f e w years previously; t h e s e m a s t e r p i e c e s b y P h i d i a s , t a k e n m a i n l y f r o m

Fig. 3

Asmus Jacob Carstens

The Embarkation of Megapenthes, 1794 Klassik Stiftung Weimar/Museen

t h e P a r t h e n o n Temple i n A t h e n s , h a d s p a r k e d off yet a n o t h e r n e w w a v e of e n t h u s i a s m for A n t i q u i t y i n E u r o p e . T h e black- clad y o u n g m a n is a p p a r e n t l y so d a z z l e d b y t h e h y p e r r e a l i t y of so m a n y ideal m a l e b o d i e s t h a t h e h a s t o steady himself a g a i n s t t h e console, even w h i l e h i s eyes r e m a i n fixed o n t h e m i d r i f f s t r e t c h e d o u t i n f r o n t of h i m . T h e h a n d k e r c h i e f in h i s h a n d , t h e s t r o n g e s t color accent i n t h e w o r k , e m p h a s i z e s t h e d i s t a n c e k e p t t o t h e objects he is m a r v e l i n g at.

P r e s e r v e d o n l y i n t a n t a l i z i n g f r a g m e n t s , t h e a r t of A n c i e n t Greece a n d R o m e w a s as greatly a d m i r e d as its loss w a s l a m e n t e d a r o u n d 1800. But it w a s also a m i l l s t o n e r o u n d t h e n e c k of m a n y a n a s p i r i n g y o u n g artist. T h e s e are all p o i n t s t h a t v i e w e r s of Z o f f a n y ' s p a i n t i n g w o u l d have e x p e c t e d t h e a c a d e m i c i a n s b u s y p o s i t i o n i n g t h e i r m o d e l t o t a k e a c c o u n t of.

T h e y c o u l d scarcely have a n t i c i p a t e d t h e m u c h m o r e v e h e m e n t a n d m o r e radical r e a c t i o n s t h a t t h e t u r b u l e n t p e r i o d t h e n just d a w n i n g h a d i n störe.

III. A g a i n s t W i n c k e l m a n n

N o t l o n g a f t e r t h e u n v e i l i n g of Z o f f a n y ' s p a i n t i n g of t h e a c a d e m i c i a n s , a g r o u p of y o u n g a r t i s t s , n o w r e g a r d e d as p a r t of t h e Sturm und Drang m o v e m e n t , rose u p i n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t W i n c k e l m a n n ' s calls for e m o t i o n a l r e s t r a i n t . O v e r s t e p p i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a n o n of e m o t i o n s d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e a n d c o d i f i e d d u r i n g t h e B a r o q u e era,1 3t h e s e

a r t i s t s , all of w h o m h a d b o u r g e o i s o r i g i n s , e m b a r k e d o n a n e x p l o r a t i o n of w h a t n e w l y e m a n c i p a t e d a r t c o u l d do, a n d h e n c e o n a n e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e i r o w n psyches.

T h e chief p r o t a g o n i s t of t h e c o u n t e r m o v e m e n t t h a t W e r n e r B u s c h o n c e d e s c r i b e d as "Classicism w i t h pathos"1 4

w a s J o h a n n H e i n r i c h Füssli, b e t t e r k n o w n as H e n r y Fuseli (1741­1825), w h o deliberately d e v e l o p e d his o w n idea of h o w t h e m a l e b o d y s h o u l d look. As W i n c k e l m a n n h a d b e e n a f r i e n d of h i s f a t h e r , J o h a n n C a s p a r Füssli, h e h a d b e e n m o r e i n f l u e n c e d t h a n m o s t b y t h e great archaeologist's ideals.15I n 1765 he p u b l i s h e d h i s o w n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of W i n c k e l ­ m a n n ' s s e m i n a l Gedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke a n d e v e n i n 1770, h i s first year in Rome, h e w a s still g o i n g i n t o r a p t u r e s over t h e " t r u l y great W i n c k e l m a n n . "1 6N o t for m u c h longer, h o w e v e r . I n a l e t t e r t o J o h a n n C a s p a r Lavater of 1777, he used a c r i t i q u e of W i n c k e l m a n n ' s f r i e n d M e n g s t o e x p l a i n w h e r e he n o w d i f f e r e d . A f t e r at first coolly c o m m e n d ­ i n g M e n g s for "not h a v i n g w r i t t e n s o m e t h i n g n o t b a d a b o u t Raphael's expression," h e goes o n t o ask, " b u t w h o w o u l d have t h o u g h t t h a t M e n g s himself h a d expression?"1 7I n a series of l e c t u r e s given in 1801, Fuseli explicitly t o o k a s t a n d a g a i n s t W i n c k e l m a n n by a v e r r i n g t h a t t h e Laocoön g r o u p , f a r f r o m e x e m p l i f y i n g Classical self­control a n d e m o t i o n a l r e s t r a i n t , i n fact e m b o d i e d f a r m o r e a n g u i s h t h a n t h e l a t t e r h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d t o admit.1 8

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I n his o w n a r t , h o w e v e r , Fuseli a i m e d n o t just for expression b u t for extremes of expression. W h a t fascinated h i m , a c c o r d i n g t o o n e of t h e a p h o r i s m s he t o o k t o p e n n i n g f r o m 1788 o n w a r d s , w a s this: " T h e b e i n g seized b y a n e n o r m o u s passion, b e it joy or grief, h o p e or despair, loses t h e c h a r a c t e r of its o w n i n d i v i d u a l expression, a n d is absorbed by t h e p o w e r of t h e f e a t u r e t h a t a t t r a c t s it: N i o b e a n d her f a m i l y are assimi- lated b y e x t r e m e a n g u i s h ; U g o l i n o is p e t r i f i e d b y t h e fate t h a t sweeps his sons."19

Fuseli h i m s e l f t h e r e f o r e selected subjects t h a t w o u l d a l l o w h i m t o depict figures, a n d above all m e n , "seized by a n e n o r m o u s passion";2 0h i s w o r k s are p o p u l a t e d by t h e heroes of Shakespeare's d r a m a s , by figures f r o m M i l t o n ' s Paradise Lost, or f r o m t h e Edda saga or t h e Song of the Nibelung, all of w h i c h he k n e w w e l l t h a n k s to J o h a n n Jakob B o d m e r (1698-1783), his t u t o r a n d m e n t o r in Zürich.2 1 T h e N o r d i c sagas, i n p a r t i c u l a r , c h i m e d w e l l w i t h t h i s larger a i m , if o n l y because t h e y w e r e so m u c h older: h a v i n g b e e n t r a n s c r i b e d by t h e c o u r t l y p o e t s of t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e y w e r e suf ficiently f a r r e m o v e d f r o m Fuseli's o w n age to be v i e w e d as s h o w i n g h u m a n b e h a v i o r " u n s p o i l e d " by civilization.2 2 Like m a n y of h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , Fuseli, too, feit a d e e p y e a r n i n g for all t h i n g s "primitive."2 3

Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent, w h i c h Fuseli gave to t h e Royal A c a d e m y in 1790 as a t o k e n of t h a n k s for h a v i n g

b e e n a d m i t t e d to t h a t h a l l o w e d I n s t i t u t i o n t w o years earlier, is also a scene f r o m a N o r d i c saga: T h o r has c a u g h t t h e beast of t h e title using a n ox h e a d as bait. Fuseli s h o w s h i m p u l l i n g t h e c h a i n e d m o n s t e r out of t h e sea w h i l e raising his a r m ready to deal t h e deadly h a m m e r blow. T h e g i a n t H y m i r , w h o m o m e n t s later w i l l be driven by sheer terror t o sever t h e line a n d so to save t h e snake, is s h o w n c o w e r i n g in t h e s t e r n of t h e little boat.

T h e pale a n d f i n e l y m o d e l e d f i g u r e of T h o r is t h r o w n s h a r p l y i n t o relief b y t h e misty, d a r k gray b a c k g r o u n d . H i s s i n e w y body, w h i c h seems t o consist e n t i r e l y of clearly deli- n e a t e d muscles, looks as solid as if it w e r e a r m o r e d . T h i s m a k e s h i m t h e v e r y a n t i t h e s i s of t h e s h i n y b l a c k s n a k e , w h o s e vaguely d e f i n e d s k i n m a r k i n g s m e r g e i m p e r c e p t i b l y w i t h t h e s w i r l i n g d a r k waters.2 4 A n d w h e r e a s T h o r is t e n s e d t o t h e l i m i t , o n e a r m held a l o f t , t h e o t h e r at h i s side, h i s legs b r a c e d a g a i n s t t h e b o w , H y m i r c o w e r s over t h e r u d d e r i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a k e h i m s e l f as s m a l l as p o s s i b l e — a n act w h i c h l i k e w i s e calls for a t e n s i n g of t h e muscles. T h e h e a d s of t h e t w o m e n are e i t h e r covered up or deep in shade, as if t h e y h a d n o m e n t a l c o n t r o l over t h e energies a b o u t t o b u r s t o u t of t h e m .

T h e heroic b o d y has a n t e c e d e n t s , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of w h i c h w a s o n e of t w o horse t a m e r s o n t h e Q u i r i n a l H i l l , a w o r k t h a t in t h o s e days w a s a t t r i b u t e d to P h i d i a s a n d w a s a c o n s t a n t source of i n s p i r a t i o n for Fuseli. T h e d r a m a t i c a l l y l o w angle of vision a n d o v e r d r a w n a n a t o m y t h a t seems t o s h o w

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Fig. k

August W i l h e l m Julius Ahlborn, a f t e r Karl Friedrich Schinkel Vieuu of t h e Flower of Greece, 1 8 3 6

N a t i o n a l g a l e r i e , S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n zu B e r l i n

e v e r y Single m u s c l e is r e m i n i s c e n t of M a n n e r i s t w o r k s s u c h as t h o s e of H e n d r i k G o l t z i u s (page 162). I n d e e d , some of Fuseli's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s saw " m a n n e r " a n d e v e n "caricature" i n his works.2 5But n o r w o u l d it be r i g h t t o see t h e m as o n e last f l o w e r i n g of " t h e a n a t o m i c a l a n d illusionistic a c c o m p l i s h - m e n t s of Classicism a n d M a n n e r i s m " at t h e level of " h i g h a r t

— f o r w h i c h read artist's art."26O n t h e c o n t r a r y , w h a t Fuseli did w a s t o invest h i s A n t i q u e m o d e l s w i t h n e w m e a n i n g . I n s t e a d of e m p h a s i z i n g p o w e r , b e a u t y , a n d i n d i v i d u a l i t y , w h i c h is w h a t t h e M a n n e r i s t s a n d older a r t i s t s h a d s o u g h t to do, his chief c o n c e r n w a s t h e subjective e x p e r i e n c e of bodies, expressively conveyed. Fuseli, i n o t h e r w o r d s , w a n t e d v i e w e r s to have a h a n d i n s h a p i n g his w o r k s by "using t h e i r o w n p o w e r s of imaginative e m p a t h y to reconcile f o r m a n d content."2 7

T h e f a c t t h a t h i s f i g u r e s are easy t o read is of c o u r s e c o n d u c i v e t o s u c h i n v o l v e m e n t , as B u s c h n o t e d ; b u t so is t h e u n n a t u r a l t e n s i n g of all h i s h e r o e s ' m u s c l e s a n d t h e i r c o n s p i c u o u s

"overdrawing."

A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n asserted repeatedly, w h a t m a k e s Fuseli's p r o t a g o n i s t s so s t r i k i n g is t h e w a y t h e y relate t o t h e i r p i c t o r i a l space a n d so b e c o m e ciphers for s o m e t h i n g eise.2 8

H o w w e read t h e m d e p e n d s v e r y m u c h o n t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n . F u s e l i seems t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t i n Prometheus Rescued by Hercules (1781-1785) (page 190), i n w h i c h t h e Silhouette of P r o m e t h e u s ' t o r s o is v e r y s i m i l a r t o

t h a t of H e r c u l e s . B o t h have o n e leg e x t e n d e d a n d o n e leg b e n t . But w h i l e H e r c u l e s is m u s t e r i n g all h i s s t r e n g t h r e a d y t o s h o o t w i t h a n invisible b o w , P r o m e t h e u s ' w r i t h i n g is expressive o n l y of despair, a n t i c i p a t e d p a i n , a n d t h e urge t o flee.

Strikingly, Fuseli insists o n t e n s i n g all t h e muscles of his p r o t a g o n i s t s ' b o d i e s e v e n w h e n t h i s is n o t called for b y t h e Situation, as in Satan Summoning His Legions (1795-1800), w h i c h w a s o n e of t h e illustrations for D u Roveray's e d i t i o n of M i l t o n ' s Paradise Lost of 1802.29 A raised a r m w o u l d have b e e n p e r f e c t l y s u f f i c i e n t h e r e , a n d e v e n in c o n t r a p p o s t o t h e r e w a s never a n y d a n g e r of h i s f a l l i n g over. Fuseli, h o w e v e r , gives us t h e impres- sion t h a t t h e r e is n o place o n S a t a n s b o d y t h a t is n o t i n f o r m e d b y t h e act of s u m m o n i n g . It is t h e s a m e w h i c h e v e r w a y w e look, so m u c h so t h a t w e c a n n o t h e l p b u t feel it ourselves.

Yet even Fuseli's "overdrawing," a n a t o m i c a l impreci- sion, a n d d i s t o r t i o n s3 0are likely t o m a k e t h e v i e w e r engage even m o r e i n t e n s i v e l y w i t h his f i g u r e s in t h e g r i p of over- w h e l m i n g e m o t i o n . It is as if t h e i r passions h a d physically r e m o l d e d t h e i r bodies. T h i s f o r m of p r o t o - E x p r e s s i o n i s m m a k e s t h e subject of t h e a r t i s t m e r g e w i t h t h e subject of h i s p i c t u r e . I m p r e s s e d b y t h e a e s t h e t i c of t h e g e n i u s t h e n circu- l a t i n g , Fuseli really did believe t h a t w h a t h e w a s d e p i c t i n g w a s first a n d f o r e m o s t h i m s e l f ; h i s w o r k s c a n t h u s be i n t e r p r e t e d as e x p l o r a t i o n s of h i s o w n expressive compass. T h i s p o s i t i o n

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• ^ • 1

Fig. 5

Nicolai Abildgaard Wounded Philoctetes, 1775

Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen

informs another of his aphorisms: "In following too closely a model, there is danger in mistaking the individual for Nature herseif; in relying only on the schools, the deviation into manner seems inevitable: what then remains, but to transpose

As Martin Myrone has recently noted, Fuseli's bodies also helped him to sort out his own passions and self-projec- tions, and to communicate these to his viewers. Yet his pictures were more than merely "hedonistic" and "devoid of any par- ticular political intent," even if their content—the society pre- sented in the Edda illustrations, for example—was not only far removed from the realities of late eighteenth-century London but also "unrealizable, and in effect undesirable."

There can be no doubt that Fuseli's fantastical and unrealistic art helped both him and his first viewers to deal with their own and others' irrational and above all destructive impulses—at least on an intellectual level. It provided them not just with a

counterfoil but also with the necessary Supplement to Winckel- mann's ideal of cultivation and its political implications.

IV. Fellow disputants and one mediator

Fuseli gathered round him a whole host of artists from several different countries—and most of them quite young—during his stay in Rome from 1770 to 1778.» Among them were the

Englishman Thomas Banks, the Scots John Brown and Alexander Runciman, and the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel.

They each added facets of their own to Fuseli's exploration of eruptions of strong feeling in art. The "Master of the Giants"

whose identity is still controversial,

for example, took the Mannerist distortion of proportions to an extreme.

The Danish artist Nicolai Abildgaard (1743-1809) combined Fuseli's expressiveness with a new brand of paint- erly sensitivity. His small painting Adrastos Slays Himself on

Roman period, Wounded Philoctetes (lyy^-iyy^; Fig. 5) show two opposite poles in terms of posture. While Ajax is depicted outstretched in diagonal freefall, Philoctetes is coiled up in a ball. The one is giving free rein to the pain his body is feeling, while the other is trying to squeeze it out of existence. The scene of the action in both cases is a flat stage; the naked bodies contrast sharply with the dark background, which has the effect of turning them into expressive ciphers. Abildgaard, too, makes deliberate use of anatomical distortions to enhance the expressiveness of his figures. As tensed as they are, how- ever, his nudes, unlike Fuseli's, do not have bodies made of steel, but on the contrary look pliant, fleshy, almost passive.

Abildgaard thus adds an d e m e n t of vulnerability to the pain his figures are enduring—a vulnerability that appeals directly to our sympathies.

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Fig. 7

T h e H o r s e T a m e r

R o m a n Copy of a Greek Original P i a z z a del Q u i r i n a l e , R o m e

Fig. 8

Johann A u g u s t N a h l t h e Younger Zeus a n d G a n y m e d e , ca. 1 7 8 0 P r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p

Fuseli's m a l e n u d e s w e r e also a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of i n s p i r a t i o n for t h e v i s i o n a r y loner W i l l i a m Blake (1757-1827), w h o s e i l l u m i n a t e d b o o k s p r o p a g a t e d a holistic v i e w of m a n w h i c h m i g h t a l m o s t b e said t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e ideas of F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e . The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790-93), for e x a m - ple, m a r k s a clear b r e a k w i t h E m a n u e l S w e d e n b o r g ' s clear-cut division of h u m a n i t y i n t o g o o d a n d evil, s y m b o l i z e d by m i n d a n d body: " W i t h o u t C o n t r a r i e s is n o progression. A t t r a c t i o n a n d R e p u l s i o n , Reason a n d Energy, Love a n d H a t e , are n e c e s s a r y t o H u m a n existence. F r o m t h e s e c o n t r a r i e s spring w h a t t h e religious call G o o d & Evil. G o o d is t h e passive t h a t obeys Reason. Evil is t h e active s p r i n g i n g f r o m Energy. G o o d is H e a v e n . Evil is Hell."3 5Blake c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t " E n e r g y is t h e o n l y life a n d is f r o m t h e Body a n d R e a s o n is t h e b o u n d or o u t w a r d c i r c u m f e r e n c e of Energy. E n e r g y is E t e r n a l Delight."3 6

O n e of t h e plates in t h i s book,3 7w h i c h Blake w o u l d later r e p e a t in o n e of his g r e a t p r i n t s , The Good and Evil Angels (1795/1805) (Fig. 6),38p r e s e n t s t h e p r o b l e m a t i c division of physical e n e r g y h e l d i n c h e c k b y m o r a l i t y a n d t h e t r u l y f r e e spirit, h e r e r e n d e r e d as t w o s i n e w y m a l e n u d e s f l o a t i n g

alongside each o t h e r in space, albeit w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g . W h i l e physical e n e r g y b u r s t s f o r t h f r o m t h e f l a m e s of H e l l w i t h a violence w o r t h y of Fuseli h i m s e l f , t h e f r e e spirit stares a n x i o u s l y i n t o space, slightly t e n s e d as if w o r r y i n g t h a t some- t h i n g m i g h t h a p p e n t o his c h i l d . Despite t h e b l o w n b a c k hair, his b o d y still accords w i t h W i n c k e l m a n n ' s ideal. It is as if Blake w e r e h e r e p r e s e n t i n g t w o o p p o s i n g views of t h e m a l e n u d e side b y side, possibly w i t h t h e a i m of r e c o n c i l i n g t h e t w o .

I n t w o of h i s "prophecies," Europe (1793) a n d America (1794), Blake i d e n t i f i e d t h e t w o o p p o s i t e poles of e n e r g y a n d spirit w i t h a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n e r g y called O r c a n d a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r called Uri- zen. T h i s a l l o w e d h i m t o c o m m e n t o n t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s of his age o n a m y t h i c a l level, w h i c h is w h y t h e r e are g o o d r e a s o n s for l i n k i n g his Good and Evil Angels w i t h t h e m o s t pressing p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s of t h e day: progress t o w a r d s a m o r e h u m a n e social o r d e r c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d b y s u p p r e s s i n g p o l i t i c a l forces in t h e n a m e of some p r e c o n c e i v e d ideal. A l t h o u g h w i d e l y d e r i d e d by his peers, Blake s u c c e e d e d i n c r e a t i n g a m e m o r a b l e i m a g e of a p r o b l e m w h i c h has lost n o n e of its t o p i c a l i t y even today.

f

Fig. 6 William Blake

Adam and Eue find the Corpse of Abel, ca. 1826 Täte Britain, London

1 See M a r y A n n e Stevens's description of this w o r k in exh. cat. N e w Hä v e n / L o n d o n 2011, pp. 218-21 (no. 44).

2 See Liebsch 2006.

3 Later published in English as Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture.

4 W i n c k e l m a n n 1948, here p. 20.

5 See Steffi Roettgen's description of this w o r k in exh. cat. Dresden 2001, pp. 244-7 (no. 78).

6 Craske 1997, p. 25.

7 W i n c k e l m a n n 1948, pp. 3-9; W i n c k e l m a n n 1913, p. 207.

8 W i n c k e l m a n n 1948, p. 20.

9 F e r n o w 1806. For a critique of this position, see H e n n i g 2005, pp. 9-57.

10 See Lucius Grisebach's e n t r y o n this w o r k in Gemälde der deutschen Romantik 1985, p. 98.

11 Q u o t e d f r o m Steven M o y a n o , "Quality vs. History: S c h i n k e l s Altes M u s e u m a n d Prussian Arts Policy," in The Art Bulletin, vol. 72, no. 4, Dec. 1990, p. 606 12 See Kasper M o n r a d ' s description of this w o r k in exh. cat. Los Angeles 1993,

pp. 144-7 (no. 57).

13 See K i r c h n e r 1991.

14 Busch 2009, here p. 47.

15 W a l t e r M u s c h g , "Foreword," Fuseli 1942, pp. 13-43. here pp. 15/16.

16 Füssli to Lavater, Rome, 30.7.1770, in ibid., pp. 157-60, here p. 159.

17 Füssli to Lavater, Rome, 14.7.1777, in ibid., pp. 175-8, here p. 177.

18 Busch 2009, p. 45.

19 Fuseli 1944, p. 90 (Aphorism 89). See also A p h o r i s m 178 (p. 132): "The passions^

t h a t sway f e a t u r e s a n d limbs equally reside, fluctuate, flash a n d lower in color."

20 Craske 1997, p. 239.

21 Busch 2009, p. 43.

22 See K l e m m 2005.

23 See M a r t i n M y r o n e ' s description of this w o r k in Gothic Nightmares, 2006. p. 88 (no. 44).

24 M y r o n e 2005, p. 268.

25 J o h a n n W o l f g a n g von G o e t h e w r o t e of Fuseli in 1797 as follows: " M a n n e r in all things, especially anatomy, h e n c e t h e postures," J o h a n n W o l f g a n g von G o e t h e ,

"Über H e i n r i c h Füeßli's Arbeiten" (1797), in: ibid., Werke, section 1, vol. 4y, W e i m a r 1896, p. 347; see also Füssli 1942, p. 168: Lavater, w r i t i n g in Z ü r i c h o n 4.11.1772, told Herder, " W h a t he draws is n o t a p o r t r a i t — y e t all his features are true, albeit caricature."

26 H o f m a n n 1973, here p. 50.

27 Busch 2009, pp. 49/50.

28 Ibid., p. 50.

29 See H a t t e n d o r f 1997, here p. 86.

30 M y r o n e writes of his "manifest s h o r t c o m i n g s as a d r a u g h t s m a n a n d technical painter," cf. M y r o n e 2005, p. 268, a n d explains w h a t he m e a n s by this in his dis- cussion of the p a i n t i n g of T h o r in Gothic Nightmares 2006, p. 88 (No. 44).

31 Fuseli 1944, p. 115 (Aphorism 144, italics as in the original). See also A p h o r i s m 118 (p. 105): "As far as the m e d i u m of an art can be t a u g h t , so far is t h e artist c o n f i n e d to the class of mere mechanics; he only t h e n elevates himself to talent, w h e n he i m p o r t s to his m e t h o d , or his tool, some u n a t t a i n a b l e or exclusive excellence of his own."

32 M y r o n e 2005, pp. 268 a n d 264.

33 Pressly 1979.

34 Ibid., pp. 90-5.

35 lake 1790-1793, p. 3.

36 Ibid., p. 4.

37 Ibid.

38 See Robin Hamlyn's c o m m e n t s on this sheet in exh. cat. L o n d o n / N e w York 2000, p. 218.