N C P 89 -103

N

C

Alex Inkeies

NATIONAL CHARACTER REVISITED

ALEX INKELES S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s ity

December 28, 1988

In th e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f th e Handbook o f S o c ia l P sy ch o lo g y p u b lis h e d i n 1954 D. J . Levinson and I s o u g h t t o d e f in e th e f i e l d o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r re s e a r c h a s " th e s tu d y o f modal p e r s o n a l i t y and s o c i o c u l t u r a l system s" ( I n k e le s and L ev in so n 1 9 5 4 ). W hile acknow ledging t h e le g itim a c y o f d e r i v i n g n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r from th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r c u l t u r a l form s s h a re d by a p o p u la tio n o r from th e b e h a v io r o f t h e i r n a tio n i n a c t s su ch a s w ar, p eace and commerce, we u rg ed t h a t " n a t io n a l c h a r a c t e r o u g h t t o be e q u a te d w ith modal p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e ; t h a t i s , sh o u ld r e f e r t o th e mode o r modes o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a n t s w ith in a g iv e n s o c i e t y " . We b ased o u r recom m endation on th e sim p le ground t h a t th e a c t u a l r e f e r e n t in m ost common o b s e r v a tio n s a b o u t

n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r was i n f a c t th e p e r s o n a l i t y and r e l a t e d b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls view ed c o l l e c t i v e l y . We a l s o s t r e s s e d th e ad v an ta g e t h a t m a in ta in in g th e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s made i t p o s s ib le s u b s e q u e n tly t o e x p lo re th e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s o f modal p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ith i n s t i t u t i o n a l form s, c u l t u r a l

p a t t e r n s and n a t i o n - s t a t e b e h a v io r.

The im p o rtan ce o f th e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s was a l r e a d y p e rc e iv e d by de T o c q u e v ille (1 8 3 5 ), who c r i t i c i z e d th e p re o c c u p a tio n which some o b s e r v e rs m a n ife ste d w ith th e p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and*

th e law s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . He s t r e s s e d , i n s t e a d , th e im p o rtan ce o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e p e rs o n a l n a t u r e , th e b a s ic c h a r a c t e r , o f th e men and women who p e o p led th e c o u n try i n i t s e a r l y d ecad es a s an in d e p en d e n t n a t i o n . Yet i n s e e k in g to

d is c o v e r th e c h a r a c te r o f th e A m erican, de T o c q u e v ille , no m a tte r how e x te n s iv e h i s t r a v e l s , co u ld n o t a c h ie v e th e e q u iv a le n c e o f a t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n a t i o n a l sam ple. H is d e s c r i p t i o n s ,

t h e r e f o r e , te n d e d to a s s ig n a l l o r m ost A m ericans th e same s e t o f q u a l i t i e s . L a te r r e s e a rc h on n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , even t h a t

co n d u cted by s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , and e s p e c i a l l y t h a t i n th e e th n o g ra p h ic and p s y c h o a n a ly tic mode, a l s o te n d e d t o p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e o f n a t i o n a l and e t h n i c g ro u p s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r u n if o r m ity and u n iq u e n e s s .

A lth o u g h t h i s outcome may have been in f lu e n c e d by c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c a l p re c o n c e p tio n s , i t was a l s o th e r e s u l t o f r e l i a n c e on s m a ll, homogeneous and u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam p les. These

a n a l y s t s t h e r e f o r e o f te n f a i l e d to p e rc e iv e how f a r th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n a n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n was m u lti-m o d a l, a f a c t w hich in c r e a s e d th e

p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t some modes m ight be s h a re d a c r o s s n a t i o n a l l i n e s . The ten d en cy to s k e tc h n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r in unim odal term s a l s o o b scu red th e e x t e n t w hich p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s g ro u p s , m ost n o ta b ly r e l i g i o u s , o c c u p a tio n a l and e d u c a tio n a l g ro u p s ,

m ight s h a re more p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s w ith t h e i r common s t a t u s group a c r o s s n a t i o n a l l i n e s th a n th e y s h a re d w ith t h e i r f e llo w countrym en p r a c t i c i n g d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s , p u rs u in g d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n s , o r h av in g had m arkedly d i f f e r e n t k in d s and d e g re e s o f e d u c a tio n . For th e s e re a so n s we con clu d ed i n 1954 t h a t a t o u r th e n l i m i t e d s t a t e o f knowledge and r e s e a rc h te c h n o lo g y we c o u ld n o t a f f i r m i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l y t h a t any n a tio n had a d i s t i n c t i v e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r i n o u r s e n s e o f th e te rm . Our c o n c e p tio n , we acknow ledged, d e s c rib e d a h y p o th e tic a l e n t i t y w hich m ig h t o r m ig h t n o t e x i s t , and i t was th e ta s k o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e , we p ro p o se d , t o p ro v id e th e an sw er.

Coming back t o re v ie w th e f i e l d a g a in i n 1969

we w ere a b le t o r e p o r t i n th e second e d i t i o n o f th e Handbook t h a t i n th e e n su in g d ecad e a new s t y l e o f work had b een

in tro d u c e d w hich prom ised t o c o r r e c t many o f th e more s e r i o u s sh o rtco m in g s o f th e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . These new s t u d i e s no lo n g e r fo c u s se d on a s in g l e e t h n i c g ro u p o r

n a t i o n , b u t d e a l t w ith f o u r , s i x , o r more c o u n t r i e s s im u lta n e o u s ly , th u s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t i n g s y s te m a tic

c r o s s - n a t i o n a l co m p ariso n s. T h e ir in s tru m e n ts and m ethods o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n were s ta n d a r d iz e d . P r o j e c t i v e t e s t s , w hich p o sed m assiv e problem s o f r e l i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and w ere i n any e v e n t e x tre m e ly c o s t l y t o a n a ly z e , w ere l a r g e l y r e p la c e d by seem in g ly s im p le r and more s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d a t t i t u d e and v a lu e q u e s tio n s in th e common mode o f p u b lic o p in io n r e s e a r c h . Most im p o r ta n t, la r g e and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ples o f th e e n t i r e p o p u la tio n r e p la c e d th e s m a ll, s p e c i a l , and u s u a l l y t o t a l l y

u n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sam ples on which v i r t u a l l y a l l o f th e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s had r e s t e d . T h is g r e a t l y com pensated f o r th e f a c t t h a t m ost o f th e s e newer s t u d i e s were n o t d e sig n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to d e s c r ib e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r i n b ro a d g e n e r a l term s b u t were

r a t h e r in te n d e d to e x p lo re a s in g l e theme o r i s s u e such a s

n a t i o n a l s te r e o ty p e s i n th e work o f Buchanan and C a n t r i l (1 9 5 3 ), o r th e " c i v i c c u l t u r e " in Almond and V erba (1 9 6 3 ).

S tim u la te d by th e s e advances we w ere moved, i n 1969, t o p r e d i c t t h a t " th e b u rg eo n in g o f t h i s new ty p e o f s tu d y may soon p e rm it u s t o d e v elo p co m p o site n a t i o n a l m o d a l- p e r s o n a lity

d e s c r i p t i o n s b ased on la r g e sam ples [ t h a t ] would y i e l d r a t h e r s t r i c t co m p arativ e s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f p a r t i c u l a r components i n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l g ro u p s and th u s [ t o l e a r n ] w hat i s d i s t i n c t i v e a s w e ll a s w hat i s common, i n th e p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s t o be found i n v a r io u s n a t i o n s . " ( I n k e le s and L ev in so n , 1969, p .4 4 7 )

Now we f in d o u r s e lv e s w ith more th a n two d e ca d e s o f

a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a rc h e x p e r ie n c e , and an i n v i t a t i o n from th e J o i n t C ongress o f th e German , A u s t r ia n , and Sw iss S o c io lo g ic a l

A s s o c ia tio n t o r e v i s i t n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r p ro v id e s an o p p o r tu n i ty t o a s s e s s how f a r th e p ro m ise we fo re sa w i n 1969 h a s been

f u l f i l l e d i n th e in te r v e n in g p e r io d .

GROWTH OF THE RESOURCE BASE

F i r s t , I s h a l l t u r n b r i e f l y , t o th e q u e s ti o n o f w hat we have to -w o rk w ith , t h a t i s , th e re s o u rc e b a se w hich new re s e a r c h p ro v id e s t o s u p p o rt th e ta s k o f a s s e s s in g n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .

By f a r th e g r e a t e s t su rg e o f a c t i v i t y h a s been on th e p a r t

o f th o s e i d e n t i f y i n g th e m selv e s a s p r a c t i c i n g " c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p sy ch o lo g y ", an i d e n t i t y m a in ta in e d by th e e x is t e n c e o f a J o u r n a l o f C r o s s - c u l t u r a l P sychology (1970 - ) , an n u al handbooks,

(T ria n d is and B r i s l i n 1980) and summary te x tb o o k s a l l b e a r in g t h a t t i t l e . Now co n d u cted p re d o m in a n tly by i n d i v i d u a l s t r a i n e d in p sy ch o lo g y , t h i s work c o n tin u e s and g r e a t l y ex p an d s a p a t t e r n i n i t i a t e d by a n th r o p o lo g is ts i n th e e a r l i e r s t a g e s o f th e f i e l d known a s c u l t u r e and p e r s o n a l i t y . T y p ic a lly a s ta n d a r d

p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t , su ch a s th e P o rte o u s Maze t e s t o r W i t k i n 's t e s t o f f i e l d d ep endence, w i l l be u s e d . O th e rs r e p e a t some n o ta b le e x p e rim e n t, such a s S c h a c t e r 's on t h r e a t and th e gro u p tre a tm e n t o f d e v i a t e s , o r u se th e q u e s ti o n n a ir e from a famous p s y c h o lo g ic a l s tu d y such a s B ro n fe n b re n n e r's t e s t o f p e e r gro u p c o n fo rm ity i n c h i l d r e n ( T r ia n d is and B r i s l i n 1980, Dawson and Lonner 1 9 7 4 ). The d im en sio n s o f p e r s o n a l i t y and b e h a v io r th u s m easured a r e o f o b v io u s re le v a n c e f o r a s s e s s i n g th e c h a r a c t e r o f groups o f i n d i v i d u a l s .

A la s , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t such s t u d i e s a r e g e n e r a te d by th e dozen a n n u a lly and now number in th e h u n d re d s , t h e i r u t i l i t y f o r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r a n a l y s i s i s m in im al. A lth o u g h th e

m a jo r ity compare o n ly two c o u n t r i e s o r e t h n i c g ro u p s , t h i s i s n o t t h e i r main l i m i t a t i o n . T h at l i e s , i n p a r t , i n th e f a c t t h a t th e y g e n e r a lly s tu d y o n ly s t u d e n t s , in d e e d o n ly s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . But th e f a t a l fla w o f th e s e s t u d i e s f o r th e s tu d e n t o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r i s th e u n s y s te m a tic n a tu r e o f t h e i r sa m p le s. Those g e n e r a lly a r e v e ry s m a ll, o f t e n c o u n ted by t e n s ; th e y a r e s e l e c t e d on o p p o r t u n i s t i c g ro u n d s, w hich c a s t s i n s e r i o u s d o u b t

th e c o m p a r a b ility o f th e n a t i o n a l g ro u p s in v o lv e d ; and, i n any e v e n t th e y a r e o b v io u s ly u n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f any n a t i o n a l

p o p u la tio n . C o n seq u en tly t h i s v a s t o u tp o u rin g o f r e s e a r c h , w h atev er i t s o th e r re le v a n c e o r v i r t u e s , c a n n o t, e x c e p t i n v e ry

r a r e c a s e s , s e rv e a s m a te r ia l f o r ju d g in g th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r w ith in n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n s o f a d u l t i n d i v i d u a l s .

In t h i s same p e r io d s o c i o l o g i s t s and p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s o r i e n t e d t o su rv e y and p u b lic o p in io n r e s e a r c h m ethodology, w h ile p ro d u c in g many few er s t u d i e s , d id , by c o n t r a s t , g iv e u s a

s u b s t a n t i a l body o f a t t i t u d e and v a lu e d a ta w hich m eet th e

c r i t e r i a o f b e in g e i t h e r t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f e n t i r e n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n s , o r o f b e in g r e l a t i v e l y s t r i c t l y com parable when th e y fo c u s se d on p a r t i c u l a r segm ents o f a p o p u la tio n su ch a s an

o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p . A lthough o f te n q u i t e l i m i t e d i n t h e i r

re le v a n c e f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g b a s ic f e a t u r e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y o r deep ly in g b e h a v io r a l te n d e n c ie s , th e y n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n s t i t u t e a new and c o n s id e ra b ly e n ric h e d d a ta b a se f o r th e d e l i n e a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .

These r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e s may be d iv id e d i n t o two ty p e s : s p e c i a l fo c u s s t u d i e s and g e n e ra l p u rp o se s u rv e y s , a lth o u g h th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een them som etim es becomes b l u r r e d . The s p e c i a l fo c u s s t u d i e s a r e th e m selv e s o f two ty p e s . As my d e s ig n a tio n i n d i c a t e s , t h e i r p red o m in an t co n cern i s w ith a s i n g l e is s u e su ch a s p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s in th e work o f V erba, N ie , and Kim (1 9 7 8 ), o r im ages o f th e f u tu r e a s in th e work o f O rnauer and h i s a s s o c i a t e s (1 9 7 6 ), o r th e u s e s o f tim e i n th e c a s e o f S z a la i and h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r s (1 9 7 2 ). A nother form o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ,

however, i s t o fo c u s on th e same subgroup o f th e p o p u la tio n fo llo w ed a c r o s s c o u n t r i e s . The s p e c i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r o u r pay in g a t t e n t i o n to th e s e s e l e c t i v e sam ples i s t h a t t h e i r c o n t r o l o f o c c u p a tio n a l and o th e r s t a t u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a t l e a s t when r ig o r o u s ly done, s tr e n g th e n s th e p re su m p tio n t h a t any

d i f f e r e n c e s w hich s t i l l show th ro u g h a r e t r u e n a t i o n a l

d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d e and v a lu e and a r e n o t m e re ly a r t i f a c t s o f th e d i f f e r e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o c c u p a tio n s o r e d u c a tio n a c r o s s n a t i o n s . Examples o f t h i s g en re a r e S te in R o k k an 's (1970)

re s e a rc h on t e a c h e r s from f iv e European c o u n t r i e s , K lin e b e rg and a s s o c i a t e s ' (1979) s tu d y o f u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t s i n e le v e n

n a tio n s , W illia m Form 's (1976) e x a m in a tio n o f th e e x p e r ie n c e s and view s o f a u to m o b ile w o rk ers i n fo u r q u i t e d i v e r s e n a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s , s t u d i e s o f m a n a g e ria l v a lu e s (H a ire , e t a l . , 1966, Tannenbaum and Rozgonyi 1 9 8 6 ), and H o fs te d e ' s (1980) s tu d y o f th e em ployees o f a s in g l e m u l t i - n a t i o n a l company a c r o s s 40 c o u n t r i e s .

A p a rt from th e c o n s t r a i n t s c r e a t e d by t h e i r r e s t r i c t e d fo c u s , th e s e s p e c i a l s t u d i e s s u f f e r e d from o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e i r u t i l i t y f o r c r o s s n a t i o n a l co m p ariso n . Many o f them w ere c o o p e ra tiv e e f f o r t s , d e p en d en t m o stly on th e good w i l l o f th e d iv e r s e n a t i o n a l team s, r e s t i n g on im p o v erish ed b u d g e ts , and o f te n s u b je c t t o th e whim o f i n t o l e r a n t p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . As a r e s u l t th e s e t s o f c o u n tr ie s s tu d ie d w ere o f t e n v e ry l i m i t e d i n number. M oreover, b ecau se th e s e t s d i f f e r e d from one e f f o r t to a n o th e r th e n a tio n s re p re s e n te d in d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s d id n o t o v e rla p , g r e a t l y re d u c in g t h e i r c u m u la tiv e s i g n i f i c a n c e . Even w ith in th e same s tu d y , some n a t i o n a l c o l l a b o r a t o r s s e r i o u s l y

f a i l e d t o g e n e r a te r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam p les, o r t o in s u r e th e s t r i c t c o m p a r a b ility o f th e su b -g ro u p s u n d er i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , m ost o f th e c o l l a b o r a t i o n s w ere o n e -tim e v e n t u r e s , so t h a t no a sse ssm e n t c o u ld be made o f th e s t a b i l i t y o f a t t i t u d e s over tim e n o r o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i a l s e n s i t i v i t y t o i n te r v e n in g e v e n ts such a s d o m estic economic d e p r e s s io n s o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i s e s .

A number o f th e s e l i m i t a t i o n s have been a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y overcome by th e developm ent o f w hat I c a l l th e g e n e r a l p u rp o se su rv e y . They a r e g e n e ra l p u rp o se b e ca u se th e y a r e n o t d e s ig n e d t o d e a l w ith o n ly a s in g l e is s u e o r g ro u p , b u t r a t h e r see k t o a s s e s s th e view s o f v a r io u s t o t a l p o p u la tio n s a c r o s s a w ide range o f t o p i c s . Even though from tim e to tim e th e y w i l l fo c u s m a in ly on a s in g l e i s s u e , such a s p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o r r e a c t i o n s t o p o l l u t i o n , and th u s seem i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from th e s p e c i a l pu rp o se s tu d y , th e y n e v e r t h e l e s s , a r e a d i s t i n c t i v e g e n re in s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , th e y a r e a c o n tin u in g e n t e r p r i s e , sometimes re p e a te d e v e ry y e a r . Second, th e y r e p o r t on th e same c o re s e t o f c o u n tr ie s each y e a r , a lth o u g h th e c o re may be

augm ented. T h ird , th e y r ig o r o u s ly m eet th e c r i t e r i a f o r l a r g e and s t r i c t l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n a t i o n a l sam p les.

P erh ap s th e b e s t known, c e r t a i n l y th e m ost e x t e n s i v e , o f th e g e n e ra l p u rp o se su rv e y s i s t h a t begun by th e Commission o f th e European Communities in 1970 and c a r r i e d fo rw a rd from 1974 t o th e p r e s e n t y e a r w ith th e d e s ig n a tio n E u ro b aro m eter Survey S e r i e s un d er Jac q u e s R en e-R ab ier, H elene R i f f a u l t and R onald I n g l e h a r t

(1975-1986) a s p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s . L im ite d to th e members

o f th e European Economic Community, th e E urobarom eter now in c lu d e s tw elv e n a t i o n a l sam p les, c o u n tin g t h a t f o r N o rth e rn I r e la n d s e p a r a t e l y , r e p e a ts some q u e s tio n s i n a l l th e s u rv e y s , r e t u r n s t o some them es p e r i o d i c a l l y , and fo c u s e s on some a s u n iq u e i n q u i r i e s .

The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c ia l Survey Program (ISSP) a ro s e from th e c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f t h r e e s o c i a l s c ie n c e program s i n Europe and th e N a tio n a l O pinion R esearch C e n te r (NORC) a t C hicago, and numbered a s o f th e l a t e 1980s n in e n a tio n s in c lu d in g Hungary i n E a s te r n E urope. J o i n t common m odules a r e u s e d , g e n e r a l l y

b i e n n i a l l y , on them es such a s e q u a l i t y and to p i c s su ch a s p e rs o n a l s u p p o rt n e tw o rk s.

The European V alues Study g ro u p , w hich c o n d u cted an e x te n s iv e su rv e y o f v a lu e s in n in e European c o u n t r i e s i n 1981 ( S t o e t z e l , 1983; H arding e t a l . 1986) may pro v e t o be a

c o n tin u in g e n t e r p r i s e . M eantime, th e e f f o r t s o f a l l th e s e g ro u p s a r e supplem ented by th e O ffic e o f th e Prim e M in is te r o f Jap a n

(1982) w hich u n d e rta k e s su rv e y s to augment th e sam ples c o l l e c t e d i n E urope, w ith th e same q u e s tio n s u sed p r e v io u s ly i n Europe now p r e s e n te d t o th e c i t i z e n s o f Jap an and o th e r c o u n t r i e s o f A sia and th e l e s s dev elo p ed w o rld . In a d d i t i o n , i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l l i n g a g e n c ie s such a s G a llu p c o n tin u e on t h e i r own t o ask i n t e r e s t i n g and r e l e v a n t q u e s tio n s i n many n a t i o n s s im u lta n e o u s ly , and th e r e s u l t s o f th e s e and o th e r su rv e y s a r e , a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y , re c o rd e d i n th e Index t o I n t e r n a t i o n a l O pinion (H a s tin g s and H a s tin g s , 1981-1988).

The a ccu m u latio n o f t h i s body o f su rv e y d a ta p u ts u s on a

much b e t t e r f o o tin g f o r g ra p p lin g w ith i s s u e s o f n a t i o n a l

c h a r a c te r th a n was a v a i l a b l e somewhat more th a n two d e c a d e s ag o . I f you n o te i n th e to n e o f t h i s o b s e r v a tio n so m eth in g l e s s th a n th e e u p h o ria which you m ig h t assume would be g e n e r a te d by th e s h e e r volume o f th e new ly accu m u lated in fo rm a tio n you w i l l n o t be m is ta k e n . However im p o rta n t from a p o l i t i c a l and p u b lic p o l i c y p o i n t o f view th e q u e s tio n s ask ed i n th e g e n e r a l p u rp o se su rv e y s may b e , u n f o r tu n a te ly few o f them p e rm it u s t o m easure b a s ic v a lu e s , l e t a lo n e t o a s s e s s th e deep l y i n g and r e l a t i v e l y

e n d u rin g p s y c h o lo g ic a l d i s p o s i t i o n s and b e h a v io r a l p r o p e n s i t i e s o f th e n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n s in te rv ie w e d . To my know ledge, none o f th e s e su rv e y s in c lu d e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l o r p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t s o f th e ty p e w hich c la im t o have been s ta n d a r d iz e d f o r u s e i n

c r o s s - n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h , su ch a s th e M innesota M u ltip h a s ic (B u tch er and P a n c h eri 1976) o r C a t t e l l 's S ix te e n P e r s o n a l i t y F a c to rs t e s t ( C a te l l e t a l . 1980; C a t e l l e t a l . 1 9 8 6 ). M easures o f c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n in g , such a s th o s e o f f l e x i b i l i t y o r o f f i e l d dependence have n o t been s y s t e m a t i c a l l y in tr o d u c e d . Modes o f c o g n itiv e f u n c tio n in g , th e ways i n w hich p e o p le c o n f r o n t and e x p re s s th e s o c i a l and p e rs o n a l demands f o r p e r s i s t e n t e f f o r t and s t r i v i n g have n o t been r e g u l a r l y m easured, i f m easured a t a l l . The s t r e n g t h o f th e n eed s f o r a f f i l i a t i o n , a c h ie v e m e n t, and pow er, a b o u t th e im p o rtan ce o f w hich M cC lelland (1968, 1975) h a s la b o re d so a s s id u o u s ly t o s e n s i t i z e u s , a r e b a r e l y to u c h e d upon, i f d e a l t w ith a t a l l .

To th e s e la c u n a e on th e s id e o f th e c o n te n t d e a l t w ith in th e main su rv e y s m ust be added th o s e w hich hamper o u r a n a l y s i s by

l i m i t i n g th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n a tio n s r e g u l a r l y and

s y s te m a tic a ll y c o v e re d . Europe c o n s t i t u t e s , a f t e r a l l , b u t a sm all s e t o f th e w o r ld 's n a t i o n s , and a f a r from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o n e, and th o s e in th e EEC a r e even more s e l e c t i v e . Even when E a s te r n Europe i s re p r e s e n te d i n a su rv e y i t w i l l u s u a l l y be by b u t a s in g le c o u n try , so t h a t one c a n n o t check w h e th er i t s

d i s t i n c t i v e p r o f i l e , i f i t h as o n e, i n m e re ly a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e p r e s s u r e s o f Communist c o n t r o l o r in d e ed e x p r e s s e s some t r u l y o u ts ta n d in g n a t i o n a l p r o p e n s ity . The r a r e l e s s d e v e lo p e d c o u n try w hich e n t e r s i n t o th e sam ple o f c o u n t r i e s su rv e y ed le a v e s u s u n c e r t a i n w hether we a r e r e a l l y m a in ly m easu rin g l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n a l o r economic developm ent r a t h e r th a n some s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n .

A CAUTIONARY NOTE

A new d a ta b a se c a r r i e s w ith i t n o t o n ly in c r e a s e d p o t e n t i a l f o r d is c o v e r in g th e new, b u t a l s o in c r e a s e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f a l l i n g i n t o e r r o r u n le s s we a r e s e n s i t i v e t o th e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f o u r new s o u rc e s . A ll o f th e p i t f a l l s i n th e u s e o f su rv e y d a t a f o r d o m estic r e s e a r c h a r e p r e s e n t when t h a t m a t e r i a l i s u se d c r o s s - n a t i o n a l l y , p lu s o t h e r s p e c u l i a r t o c r o s s - n a t i o n a l

r e s e a r c h . Of th e l a t t e r none i s more tro u b leso m e th a n th e i s s u e o f e q u iv a le n c e , th e q u e s tio n o f w h eth er th e m eaning and th e s tim u lu s v a lu e o f a word su ch a s " p r e s ti g e " o r " c o n f o r m is t" , o r o f a co n ce p t such a s " b ein g in d e p en d e n t" a r e s t i l l b a s i c a l l y th e same a f t e r b e in g t r a n s l a t e d i n t o o th e r la n g u a g e s and tra n s p o s e d t o a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l c o n te x t . A w areness o f t h i s i s s u e g r e a t l y r e i n f o r c e s a p o in t o f w hich a l l u s e r s o f s u rv e y d a t a have become

p a i n f u l l y aw are, namely t h a t th e s in g l e q u e s tio n can be and v e ry o f t e n i s tr e a c h e r o u s , and t h a t i t i s a lm o st in d is p e n s a b le f o r p la c in g p e o p le r e l i a b l y on any m a tte r to have m u ltip l e m easu res o f th e same i s s u e .

No l e s s tr o u b l in g i s th e e f f e c t o f q u e s ti o n form , and th e problem s r a i s e d by v a r i a t i o n s i n re sp o n se shaped by v a r i a t i o n s in th e c o n te x t in w hich i n q u i r i e s a r e p la c e d . One example m ust s u f f i c e . Asked t o choose betw een making t h e i r l i f e s a t i s f y i n g and d o in g som ething f o r s o c i e t y th e p r o p o r tio n o f y o u th i n 11 c o u n t r i e s who s e l e c t e d s o c i a l s e r v ic e ranged from 28 t o 77 p e r c e n t. In th e same stu d y when th e c h o ic e s in c lu d e d g e t t i n g

r i c h and " to l i v e a s I l i k e " , th e r e a d in e s s " to work on b e h a l f o f s o c ie ty " f e l l to th e much l e s s a l t r u i s t i c ran g e o f 4 t o 29 p e r c e n t. M oreover, th e rank o r d e r in g o f th e c o u n t r i e s was

s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d in th e p r o c e s s , w ith th e U.S= y o u th i n th e f i r s t v e r s io n o f th e q u e s tio n s showing s i g n i f i c a n t l y more

commitment t o s o c i a l s e r v ic e th a n th o s e from o th e r advanced c o u n t r i e s , b u t becoming i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from th e o t h e r s i n th e second v e r s io n . (H a stin g s and H a stin g s 1983)

Of c o u rs e , a l l d a ta p r e s e n t c h a lle n g e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e v e ry te c h n iq u e i t s p i t f a l l s , and e v e ry m ethodology i t s

v i c i s s i t u d e s . We must r e c a l l P r e s id e n t T rum an's f o lk s y

ad m o n itio n , and n o t a llo w o u r s e lv e s t o be b a r r e d from th e k itc h e n b ecau se we c an n o t s ta n d th e h e a t . E x e rc is in g p ro p e r c a u ti o n , and d o in g a s b e s t we can w ith w hat i s a v a i l a b l e , i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o d e v elo p new, more s y s te m a tic , and b e t t e r docum ented

im p re s sio n s o f th e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f m ajo r n a t i o n a l

a s s e r t t h a t f o r p r e s e n t p u rp o se s we w i l l be ta k in g h a p p in e s s to be w hat in d iv id u a ls say i s t h e i r s t a t e o r c o n d itio n a s happy o r unhappy, w ith o u t any assu m p tio n a s to w hether th o s e r e p o r t i n g a r e

r e a l l y " t r u l y " happy; w ith o u t t e s t i n g w hether th e y behave i n an unhappy way, a s in com m ittin g s u i c i d e ; and w ith o u t a s c e r t a i n i n g w h eth er th e y g iv e o th e r s i g n s , su ch a s an g er o r a l i e n a t i o n , w hich may o r may n o t be re a s o n a b le c o r r e l a t e s o r s u r r o g a te s o f

h a p p in e s s o r u n h a p p in e ss. As we w i l l s e e , how ever, a l t e r n a t i v e i n d i c a t o r s o f h a p p in e ss te n d t o s u p p o rt th e v a l i d i t y o f th e d i r e c t a sse ssm e n t o f h a p p in e s s .

As lo n g ago a s 1960 i n my p a p e r I n d u s t r i a l Man I p o in te d o u t t h a t th e F rench, c o n t r a s t e d w ith th o s e from th e A nglo-Saxon s e t t l e d c o u n t r i e s , would r a r e l y a llo w t h a t th e y w ere v e ry happy.

On th e c o n tr a r y , la r g e p r o p o r t i o n s , a s h ig h a s 40 p e r c e n t o f th e F ren ch , a s s e r t e d t h a t th e y were " n o t v e ry h ap p y ", com pared t o a mere 10 p e r c e n t who to o k such a d o u r view o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n in th e A nglo-Saxon n a t i o n s . In th e same c o n te x t I r e p o r te d t h a t d e s p i t e th e s te r e o ty p e s o f s m ilin g w o rk ers and s in g in g p e a s a n ts i n sunny I t a l y , th e p e o p le t h e r e a l s o showed a te n d e n c y t o r e p o r t th em selv es a s n o t happy. I am n o t s u re how much n o te was ta k e n o f t h i s e v id e n c e . ( I n k e le s 1960) I m y s e lf, when w r i t i n g t h a t a r t i c l e , was p re o c c u p ie d w ith th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f r e p o r te d h a p p in e s s w ith in th e c l a s s s t r a t a o f th e s o c i e t i e s d e s c r ib e d . In any e v e n t, we th e n had o n ly s c a t t e r e d p o l l r e s u l t s , and had t o assume th e re sp o n se s o b serv ed m ight w e ll have been momentary and ep h em eral, p erh ap s to be e x p la in e d away a s u n d e rs ta n d a b le

r e a c t i o n s t o some presum ably tem p o rary c o n d itio n s su ch a s

p o p u la tio n s . To i l l u s t r a t e th e s e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s I h e re make th r e e b r i e f fo r a y s i n t o t h i s new realm : f i r s t , t o e x p lo re a s in g l e them e, b u t one o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e , th e r e l a t i v e h a p p in e s s o f th e p e o p le o f many d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s ; seco n d , t o seek f o r s u b t l e b u t p o s s ib ly s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n i n th e

a t t i t u d i n a l d i s p o s i t i o n s and v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f two o th e rw is e v e ry s i m i l a r c o u n t r i e s , nam ely th e N e th e rla n d s and Denmark; and t h i r d , t o t e s t w h eth er f o r any s i n g l e c o u n try , i n t h i s c a s e th e U n ite d S t a t e s , we can i d e n t i f y a s e t o f v a lu e s so w id e ly s h a re d by th e overw helm ing m a jo r ity o f th e p o p u la tio n t h a t i t

c o n s t i t u t e s a v e r i t a b l e n a t i o n a l c re e d .

THE HAPPINESS OF NATIONS

The s t a t e s o f h a p p in e s s and u n h a p p in e s s , and t h e i r

a s s o c ia te d moods o f optim ism and p essim ism , a r e among th e m ost w id e ly o b serv ed and r i c h l y d e s c r ib e d i n a l l la n g u a g e s and by a l l p e o p le s . These a r e am ongst th e m ost fu n d am en tal o f human

em o tio n s. M oreover, we commonly assume t h a t beyond momentary m a n if e s t a tio n s o f jo y and so rro w , th e r e a r e g e n e r a l te n d e n c ie s o r d i s p o s i t i o n s i n in d i v i d u a l s t o le a n to one o r th e o th e r o f th e p o l e s , t h a t i s , t o be a happy o r an unhappy p e r s o n , w ith th e n e g a tiv e p o le c l a s s i c a l l y d e s c r ib e d a s th e " m e la n c h o lic "

p e r s o n a l i t y .

To c la im one can a s s e s s th e h a p p in e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , t o s a y n o th in g o f whole n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n s , i n v i t e s p h i l o s o p h i c a l d is c u s s io n o f w hat i s h a p p in e s s , and c a r r i e s w ith i t c h a ll e n g in g m e th o d o lo g ic a l i s s u e s o f w hat i t s i n d i c a t o r s s h o u ld be and how we would m easure them . Here I m ust c u t th ro u g h a l l t h a t t o sim p ly

economic d e p r e s s io n .

[T ab le 1 a b o u t h e re ]

The d a ta c o l l e c t e d by th e g e n e r a l s o c i a l s u rv e y s p u t u s i n a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n f o r a s s e s s i n g h a p p in e s s i n n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n s . W ith t h a t d a ta we can tr a c k th e re sp o n se o f te n n a tio n a l p o p u la tio n s i n Europe t e s t e d r e g u l a r l y o v e r a te n y e a r p e rio d from 1976 to 1986, and f o r s h o r t e r sp an s f o r a much l a r g e r and d i v e r s i f i e d a s s o rtm e n t o f n a t i o n s . As sh o u ld be c l e a r from Table 1, th e p ro p e n s ity o f th e p e o p le i n d i f f e r e n t n a tio n s to see th e m selv e s a s happy o r unhappy i s rem ark ab ly s t a b l e , w ith v e ry m odest v a r i a t i o n from y e a r t o y e a r . As i n d i c a t e d i n T ab le 2 s i m ila r r e s u l t s emerge when th e form o f th e q u e s ti o n i s changed t o in q u ir e w h e th e r, on th e w hole, th e re s p o n d e n ts a r e s a t i s f i e d w ith th e l i f e th e y le a d .

Given t h a t th e ten d en cy t o r e p o r t o n e s e l f a s happy o r unhappy seems t o be a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f g iv e n n a tio n a l p o p u la tio n s , i n s h o r t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e m easure o f th e f e e l i n g s t a t e o f th e n a t i o n , would seem t o j u s t i f y

d e s c r ib in g i t a s t r u l y a n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r t r a i t . T h at i n t u r n s u g g e s ts t h a t v a r i a t i o n in t h i s re sp o n se would be a v e ry

a p p r o p r ia te b a s i s f o r th e com parison o f one n a t i o n w ith a n o th e r . Over many y e a r s th e range r e p o r tin g th e m se lv e s " v e ry happy"

a c r o s s 10 EEC c o u n tr ie s t y p i c a l l y w ent from a low o f 12 o r 13 p e rc e n t i n th e l e a s t happy c o u n tr ie s t o a h ig h o f a b o u t 45

p e r c e n t. On th e m easure o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith l i f e th e ran g e was t y p i c a l l y from a low o f 10 o r 11 p e r c e n t t o a h ig h o f 55 p e r c e n t who r e p o rte d th e m selv e s "v ery s a t i s f i e d " . W ith a marked d e g re e o f

c o n s is te n c y on b o th m easures H o llan d and Denmark show th e h i g h e s t p r o p o r tio n o f happy p e o p le , G reece, I t a l y , Germany and F ra n c e , th e h ig h e s t p r o p o r tio n o f th o s e d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith l i f e . The d e t a i l s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n T able 2.

[T ab le 2 a b o u t h e re ]

O b serv in g th e rank o rd e r o f n a t i o n a l r e p o r t s o f h a p p in e s s in Europe one i s l i k e l y t o be tem pted to assume t h a t th o s e

e x p re s s io n s o f f e e l i n g a r e c l o s e l y lin k e d to income o r w e a lth . T hat assu m p tio n i s c h a lle n g e d , how ever, by c e r t a i n c o n tr a r y f in d i n g s . F i r s t , th e c o r r e l a t i o n o f in d iv i d u a l l e v e l income and r e p o rte d h a p p in e s s w ith in any c o u n try i s q u i t e weak. Second, th e r e i s th e s tu b b o rn f a c t t h a t a s th e w e a lth o f any n a t i o n r i s e s th e a v erag e h a p p in e s s i t s c i t i z e n s r e p o r t f a i l s t o r i s e

a c c o rd in g ly , a s th e th e o ry would seem t o r e q u i r e . T h ird , we f i n d i n th o s e in s ta n c e s i n which we can g r e a t l y e x te n d th e ran g e o f c o u n tr ie s o b serv ed t o in c lu d e a v a r i e t y o f po o r and l e s s

d ev elo p ed c o u n t r i e s t h a t th e a s s o c i a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l developm ent and p o p u la r e x p re s s io n s o f h a p p in e s s i s v e ry im p e r f e c t. T hus, a Jap a n e se sp o n so red su rv e y i n 1979, w h ile showing th e f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n f o r th e European c o u n t r i e s , w ith 47 p e r c e n t v e ry happy in th e U.K. and o n ly 10 and 16 p e r c e n t so r e p o r te d i n I t a l y and

F ran c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , s t i l l gave no s u p p o rt t o th e id e a t h a t n a t i o n a l underdevelopm ent and p e rs o n a l u n h a p p in e ss a r e c l o s e l y l in k e d . In d ia was a t a b o u t th e l e v e l o f F ra n c e ; th e P h i l i p p i n e p e o p le more o f te n r e p o r te d th e m selv e s a s " v e ry happy" th a n d id th o s e o f West Germany; and th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f S in g a p o re a c h ie v e d a r a t e o f h a p p in e s s a lm o st e q u a l t o t h a t o f C anada, w h ereas th e K oreans, d e s p i t e t h e i r r a p i d l y grow ing economy c o u ld m u ste r o n ly 5 p e r c e n t who claim ed t o be v e ry happy. D e t a i l s a r e g iv e n in T ab le 3.

[T ab le 3 a b o u t h e re ]

Such c o n tr a r y f in d i n g s may n o t by th e m se lv e s v i t i a t e th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een econom ic developm ent and r e p o r te d h a p p in e s s , n o r can th e y f a l s i f y th e fo rth co m in g c la im o f R onald I n g l e h a r t t h a t he found a c o r r e l a t i o n o f .57 betw een econom ic developm ent and l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r some 20 c o u n t r i e s s t u d i e d i n 1980.

(P e rs o n a l com m unication) E x p la in in g 32 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r ia n c e i s no mean achievem ent f o r th e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , b u t i t i s w e ll below th e l e v e l o f c o n n e c te d n e ss o b serv ed w ith many m easu res a g g re g a te d a t th e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , an d , i n any e v e n t, i t le a v e s much room f o r o th e r e x p la n a tio n s . P e rs o n a l h a p p in e s s may, f o r exam ple, be r e l a t e d t o how p e o p le t r e a t each o t h e r , and how th e y r a i s e t h e i r c h i l d r e n . In t h i s c o n n e c tio n we may n o te t h a t th e European V alu es Study showed F rance and S p a in , two o f th e l e a s t happy c o u n t r i e s , had by f a r th e s m a l le s t p e r c e n ta g e , 25 and 28 p e r c e n t, r e s p e c t i v e l y , r e p o r t i n g t h a t in th e l a s t two weeks th e y had f e l t "proud b ecau se someone had com plim ented th em ." Of

c o u rs e , t h i s m ight be ta k e n a s sim p ly an a l t e r n a t e e x p r e s s io n o f th e same gloomy d i s p o s i t i o n r e f l e c t e d in th e h a p p in e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n q u e s ti o n s . (ESRC, 1981, Q.122)

More independence i n th e m easures compared i s m a n ife s te d w ith we t u r n to c h i l d r e a r in g v a lu e s . C o n fro n ted by a l i s t o f

some s i x t e e n q u a l i t i e s one m ight s t r e s s i n r a i s i n g a c h i l d , th e F ren ch , S p an ish and I t a l i a n s were o u ts ta n d in g in em p h asizin g h a rd w ork, and l o y a l t y , w ith t h r i f t , p a t i e n c e , and s e l f - c o n t r o l a l s o coining i n f o r a f a i r s h a re o f a t t e n t i o n . C h ild re n from th e c o u n t r i e s more o f te n c la im in g h a p p in e s s fa c e d a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t s e t o f e x p e c ta tio n s , w ith much l e s s em phasis on h a rd work and o b e d ie n c e , and more s t r e s s on in d ep en d en ce, t o l e r a n c e , and u n s e l f i s h n e s s ((ESRC 1981, Q .2 6 2 ). Of c o u rs e , t h i s ty p e o f q u e s tio n i s s u b je c t to a l l th e c a u tio n s I have u rg e d ab o v e, and th e r e s u l t s sh o u ld be seen a s m e re ly s u g g e s tiv e . But th e y a l s o p o i n t t o i n t r i g u i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s w hereby we m ig h t a c c o u n t f o r th e a p p a r e n tly d u ra b le te n d en c y o f v a r io u s n a t i o n a l g ro u p s to f e e l v e ry d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s o f h a p p in e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith l i f e .

CONTRASTING THE NETHERLANDS AND DENMARK

The second fo ra y in v o lv e s a s s e s s i n g w h eth er we can f i n d any n o ta b le d if f e r e n c e s in b a s ic a t t i t u d e s and p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s i n two n a tio n s which s h a re many o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s y e t may be e x p e c te d t o d i f f e r i n a t l e a s t some im p o rta n t r e s p e c t s in more s u b je c tiv e m a tte r s . The two n a t i o n s I s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s e x e r c i s e were The N e th e rla n d s and Denmark.

Both p a r t i c i p a t e r e g u l a r l y in g e n e r a l s u rv e y s , so th e r e i s

c o n s id e ra b le in fo rm a tio n f o r e ac h . B ut, o f c o u rs e , I m ig h t have s e l e c t e d some o th e r p a i r . I was in flu e n c e d in my c h o ic e by th e f a c t t h a t b o th a r e sm all c o u n tr ie s i n th e same g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a , w ith a com parable re c o rd i n r e c e n t h i s t o r y o f p e a c e f u ln e s s and h o n o ra b le i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n d u c t. Both have lo n g e x p e rie n c e i n th e p r a c t i c e o f e f f e c t i v e dem ocracy, w h ile p r e s e r v i n g l o y a l t y to a ro y a l h o u seh o ld . D en sely p o p u la te d , th e y a r e overw helm ingly u rb a n and i n d u s t r i a l i z e d . High i n p e r c a p i t a incom e, th e y s h a re s i m i l a r d e g re e s o f s a t u r a t i o n o f th e au to m o b ile and th e

te le p h o n e . N e ith e r i s d e e p ly d iv id e d on e th n ic g ro u n d s, a s i s f o r example Belgium , a lth o u g h H o llan d i s f a i r l y e v e n ly s p l i t betw een C a th o lic s and th o s e i n th e Reformed C hurch, w h ereas th e Danes a r e q u i t e homogeneous i n t h e i r a f f i l i a t i o n w ith t h e i r n a t i o n a l c h u rc h . In t h i s c o n t r a s t m ight l i e th e s e e d s o f im p o rta n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , b u t I was in flu e n c e d in my c h o ic e m ain ly by th e th o u g h t t h a t th e Danes m ight be th e c a r r i e r s o f c e r t a i n te n d e n c ie s common t o N o rd ic c u l t u r e w hich w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t in f lu e n c e s among th e D utch. There a r e , o f c o u rs e , numerous d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e two c o u n tr ie s a s w e ll.

However, w hat sh o u ld p ro b a b ly be m ost s t r e s s e d i s t h a t I s e l e c t e d t h i s p a i r w ith o u t any p re -c o n c e p tio n s — a t l e a s t t h a t I am aware o f — o f w hat d i f f e r e n c e s , i f any, m ig h t emerge from t h e i r b e in g compared. In o th e r w ords, my a n a l y s i s was n o t th e o r y d r iv e n , b u t r a t h e r was d a t a d r iv e n — i f you l i k e i t was s h e e r e m p iric ism . My method was v e ry sim p le . I t c o n s is te d o f h a v in g an a s s i s t a n t , who o f c o u rse knew my g e n e r a l ap p ro ach to n a t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r r e s e a r c h , ru n th ro u g h a l a r g e sam ple o f th e g e n e r a l su rv e y s — so f a r a b o u t h a l f o f th o s e a v a i l a b l e — and n o te a l l q u e s tio n s w hich m ight have p s y c h o lo g ic a l m eaning and on w hich th e Dutch and th e D anish sam ples were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . The p ro c e d u re was rough and re a d y , b u t n o t p u r e ly s u b j e c t i v e We i n s i s t e d t h a t where th e numbers were i n th e 40 ra n g e , th e two c o u n tr ie s be a t l e a s t 10 p e rc e n ta g e p o i n t s a p a r t . Where th e p e rc e n ta g e s b e in g compared w ere s m a ll, o r w here summary n o n -p e rc e n ta g e in d e x e s were u sed we r e q u ir e d t h a t th e two c o u n tr ie s be s e p a ra te d by a t l e a s t one s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n .

I t sh o u ld be n o te d f o r th e re c o rd t h a t th e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f th e re s p o n se s from th e two p o p u la tio n s d id n o t show them t o be m arkedly d i f f e r e n t . T h is i s to be e x p e c te d b e ca u se i n many

r e s p e c ts a l l th e p o p u la tio n s o f Europe s h a re a common c u l t u r e , and th e s e two n a tio n s were s e l e c t e d f o r com parison p r e c i s e l y b ecau se i t was assumed th e y would be a l i k e i n many r e s p e c t s . The c r i t i c a l is s u e t h e r e f o r e i s n o t how much th e y w ere a l i k e , b u t how f a r th e y d i f f e r e d . My method d i d , i n f a c t , t u r n up s e v e r a l dozen q u e s tio n s on w hich th e Danes and th e D utch d i f f e r e d

s u b s t a n t i a l l y . Those d i f f e r e n c e s seem n o t t o be random. R a th e r, th e y s u g g e s t a p a t t e r n , a c o h e re n t s t r u c t u r e o f re s p o n se s w hich i n d i c a t e s t h a t beyond s h a r in g many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e g e n e r a l European advanced c o u n try syndrome th e D utch and th e Danes do in d e e d m a n ife s t a number o f q u i t e d i f f e r e n t p s y c h o - s o c ia l t r a i t s . Some o f th e i l l u s t r a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e shown i n T ab le 4, w ith th e q u e s tio n s grouped u n d er t h r e e h e a d in g s .

F i r s t , th e c i t i z e n s o f H o llan d seem t o f e e l much more

c o n s tr a in e d by l i f e ' s f o r c e s th a n do th o s e l i v i n g i n Denmark. The Dutch a r e much l e s s l i k e l y t o f e e l t h a t th e y can in f lu e n c e th e c o u rse o f e v e n ts , and in s te a d th e y s e e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a s much more in c h arg e o f t h e i r l i v e s . For exam ple, ask ed w h eth er th e y co u ld b r in g a b o u t a change f o r th e b e t t e r i n t h e i r c o u n try , Danes c o n s i s t e n t l y w ere f i r s t among EEC c i t i z e n s i n h a v in g c o n fid e n c e i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , u s u a l l y a t a r a t e tw ic e t h a t o f th e D utch. And on th e key q u e s tio n o f "How much freedom o f

c h o ic e and c o n t r o l you f e e l you have o v e r th e way y o u r l i f e tu r n s o u t ," 43 p e r c e n t o f Danes, b u t o n ly 22 p e r c e n t o f th e D utch, f e l t th e y had "a g r e a t d e a l" o f freedom and c o n t r o l .

[T ab le 4 a b o u t h e re ]

Second, we f in d ev id en ce t h a t th e se n se o f b u rd en we p e rc e iv e i n th e Dutch a sse ssm e n t o f l i f e i s v e ry much

s e lf -im p o s e d . The Danes seem much more i n c l i n e d t o go a lo n g w ith th in g s a s th e y a r e , a c c e p tin g b o th th e s t r u c t u r e o f a u t h o r i t y and th e b e h a v io r o f th o s e around them . One i n d i c a t o r o f th e

p r o p e n s ity o f th e H o lla n d e rs t o a c c e p t b u rd e n s i s m a n ife s te d in t h e i r r e a d in e s s t o g iv e a i d t o d e p riv e d re g io n s b o th i n t h e i r own c o u n try and a b ro a d , som ething th e y a r e p re p a re d to do a t a r a t e dou b le t h a t o f th e Danes. Faced by an o r d e r o f a s u p e r i o r w ith whom th e y a r e n o t i n ag reem en t, th e m a jo r ity o f th e Danes w i l l fo llo w th e o r d e r b ecau se th e s u p e r io r i s i n a u t h o r i t y , w hereas th e Dutch a r e much more l i k e l y t o i n s i s t th e y m ust f i r s t be convinced th e o rd e r i s c o r r e c t . G iven a l i s t o f some e le v e n

form s o f extrem ism o r d e v ia n t b e h a v io r i n a p o t e n t i a l n e ig h b o r th e Dutch were c l e a r l y r e l a t i v e l y u p s e t by th e p r o s p e c t o f su ch c lo s e n e s s , th e Danes q u i t e r e la x e d . Thus, 34 p e r c e n t o f th e Danes would n o t e x clu d e any o f th e s e e x t r e m i s t s o r d e v ia n t s from t h e i r n eig h b o rh o o d , w hereas o n ly 8 p e r c e n t o f th e D utch w ere so a c c e p tin g .

T h ird , th e g r e a t e r c o n s t r a i n t s on l i f e th e Dutch f e e l , and th e b u rd en s th e y ta k e on th e m se lv e s, e v i d e n t l y have a s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a tiv e im p act on t h e i r sen se o f p s y c h ic w e ll- b e in g . Of a l l th e c o u n tr ie s i n th e EEC th e Danes a r e f i r s t i n f e e l i n g v e ry

s a t i s f i e d w ith l i f e . A lthough th e Dutch rank seco n d , o v e r a e i g h t y e a r p e r io d th e y were t y p i c a l l y 10 and even 20 p e rc e n ta g e p o in ts b e h in d th e D anes. In d e s c r ib in g t h e i r f e e l i n g s t a t e s , th e Danes were l e a s t o f te n " r e s t l e s s , " w hereas th e Dutch w ere among th o s e ra n k in g h ig h on t h i s m easure. The Danes w ere a l s o much more l i k e l y t o r e p o r t th e m selv e s a s " f e e l i n g on to p o f th e w o rld " . P erh ap s m ost c r i t i c a l i s th e e v id e n c e t h a t th e Dutch

le a d th e EEC i n th e freq u e n cy o f r e p o r t i n g th e y f e e l " a n x io u s ,"

w ith 71 p e r c e n t r e p o r tin g th e m selv e s i n t h a t c o n d itio n a s a g a i n s t o n ly 22 p e r c e n t among th e Danes.

What i s r e p o r te d above i s work i n p r o g r e s s , and th e c o n c lu s io n s p r e s e n te d a r e v e ry t e n t a t i v e . Some a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s e x p re ss e d by th e Danes and th e Dutch run c o u n te r t o th e ev id en ce I have p r e s e n te d , and th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e re s p o n s e s o f each n a t i o n a l group i s q u i t e com plex. N e v e r th e le s s , th e p a t t e r n s d e lin e a te d above a r e c h a lle n g in g , and s u r e l y can s e r v e a s

h y p o th e se s f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y . In any e v e n t, my main p u rp o se h e re

h a s n o t been t o pro v e a t h e s i s b u t r a t h e r t o i l l u s t r a t e th e

p o t e n t i a l o f our new s o u rc e s o f d a ta f o r f r e s h i n i t i a t i v e s i n th e d e l i n e a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r d i f f e r e n c e s in p o p u la tio n s assumed t o be o th e rw is e v e ry s i m i l a r .

IN SEARCH OF THE AMERICAN CREED

The t h i r d fo ra y i n t o o u r new s o u rc e s s e t s u s in s e a rc h o f a s in g l e n a t i o n 's c o re o r b a s i c v a lu e s . We seek t o d is c o v e r

w h eth er i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t i n a com plex, r e g i o n a l l y d i v e r s e , and o c c u p a tio n a lly and e d u c a t i o n a l l y s t r a t i f i e d n a tio n th e r e may s t i l l be a s e t o f v a lu e s , a t t i t u d e s , and b e h a v io r a l d i s p o s i t i o n s w hich a r e more o r l e s s u n ifo rm ly h e ld o r m a n ife s te d by th e a d u l t p o p u la tio n .

The assu m p tio n t h a t su ch common te n d e n c ie s i n p e r s o n a l i t y e x i s t e d in m ost p o p u la tio n s u n d e rla y th e m a jo r ity o f th e

d e l i n e a t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r made b o th by h i s t o r i c a l o b s e r v e rs and by th o s e w orking in th e t r a d i t i o n o f c u l t u r e and p e r s o n a l i t y s t u d i e s i n th e d e ca d e s im m ed iately a f t e r World War I I . T h is p a t t e r n c o n tin u e s t o have f o ll o w e r s . Thus, Edwin R e is c h a u e r, o b se rv e s t h a t "Ja p a n ese s o c i e t y i s re m a rk a b le __ f o r i t s h o m o g e n e ity .. . i t rem ain s th o ro u g h ly J a p a n e s e __ Jap an g iv e s a l l th e ap p ea ra n ce s o f a happy s o c i e t y . . .c h i l d r e n seem alw ays b u b b lin g w ith good s p i r i t s . . .p e o p le everyw here seem c h e e r f u l and p u r p o s e f u l" . (R e isc h a u e r 1977, P .2 1 0 , i t a l i c s s u p p l i e d ) .

I t was p r e c i s e l y b ecau se o f o u r d o u b ts a b o u t th e p re v a le n c e o f su ch u n i f o r m i t i e s t h a t L evinson and I a rg u e d i n fa v o r o f lo o k in g f o r d if f e r e n c e s i n th e modal p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n a t i o n a l p o p u la tio n s , and we p r e d i c t e d t h a t

m u lti-m o d a l p a t t e r n s were much more l i k e l y to o c c u r th a n would th e u n i-m o d al. The c o r r e c t n e s s o f o u r a ssu m p tio n i s

o v e rp o w erin g ly d e m o n strated by th e g r e a t mass o f sam ple su rv e y s now accu m u lated . On v i r t u a l l y e v e ry q u e s tio n th e s u rv e y s have th o u g h t t o a s k , th e p o p u la tio n o f each c o u n try h o ld s n o t a s i n g l e v iew , b u t r a t h e r d i s t r i b u t e s i t s e l f a c r o s s th e a l t e r n a t i v e s

o f f e r e d . N e v e rth e le s s , th e c h a lle n g e re m a in s: a r e t h e r e a t l e a s t some c o u n tr ie s w here, w ith re g a rd t o a t l e a s t c e r t a i n k in d s o f i s s u e s , th e overwhelm ing m a jo r ity i s i n c o n s i s t e n t ag re em e n t, so t h a t we may th en speak o f a n a t i o n 's c o re v a lu e s , o f i t s c r e e d , o r even o f i t s s p e c ia l n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r ?

In p u r s u i t o f t h i s g o a l I u n d e rto o k a re v ie w o f s e v e r a l s t u d i e s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s w hich w ere d e s ig n e d , i n p a r t , t o a s s e s s th e p e o p l e 's b a s ic v a lu e s . These in c lu d e d two n a t i o n a l su rv e y s by H e rb e rt McClosky (w ith B r i l l 1983 and Z a l t e r 1 9 8 4 ), one by Strum pel (1 9 7 6 ), and one by V erba and Nie (1 9 7 2 ). These p a r t i c u l a r s t u d i e s , w h ile fo c u s se d h e a v il y on p o l i t i c a l v a lu e s and s t y l e s o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a l s o r e p o r te d on many q u e s tio n s a d d re ss e d to o th e r i s s u e s . A ll showed i n t h e i r d e s ig n t h a t th e y were s e n s i t i v e t o and i n t e r e s t e d i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a s betw een th e e l i t e and th e g e n e r a l p u b lic b u t a l s o a s betw een c l a s s , r e l i g i o u s and e t h n i c g ro u p s a s w e l l .

In a c c o rd w ith w hat we know t o be t r u e o f a l l modern p o p u la tio n s , th e American p u b lic was q u i t e d iv id e d on most

i s s u e s . For exam ple, f a c in g th e s ta te m e n t t h a t m ost p e o p le d o n 't have enough sen se t o p ic k t h e i r l e a d e r s w is e ly , th e y s p l i t p r e t t y e v e n ly in a g re e in g and d i s a g r e e i n g . In th e m id s t o f t h i s s o r t o f

commonplace d is a g re e m e n t, how ever, I found q u e s tio n s which e arn ed s u r p r i s i n g l y w id e sp re a d , and som etim es n e a r u n i v e r s a l , a p p ro v a l from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ples o f A m erican s. To i d e n t i f y such q u e s tio n s I s e t a s a r u le t h a t 75 p e r c e n t o r more o f th e p e o p le p o l l e d had t o choose b u t one a l t e r n a t i v e i n d ich o to m ized q u e s ti o n s , o r t o s e l e c t one ex tre m e, such a s " v e ry im p o rta n t" o r

"v ery bad" on q u e s tio n s a llo w in g s e v e r a l d e g re e s o f o p in io n t o be e x p re s s e d . In a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , th e m a jo r ity o f su ch q u e s tio n s won o v er 80 p e rc e n t a p p ro v a l, and th e t a l l y w ent t o an

a s to n i s h in g 98 p e r c e n t opposed to in tr o d u c in g i n t o th e U n ited S t a t e s th e s o r t o f t i t l e s u sed i n E ngland, su ch a s Lord and S i r .

A lth o u g h my s e a rc h h a s b a r e ly begun I have a lr e a d y found s e v e r a l dozen q u e s tio n s m eetin g my c r i t e r i o n . They seem t o me c l e a r l y n o t random ly d i s t r i b u t e d , b u t r a t h e r t o form d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n s . I have grouped them, som etim es w ith f u r t h e r

s u b d iv is i o n s , i n t o fo u r s e t s , a s b e a r in g on: n a t i o n a l

s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s , view s o f p o l i t i c a l economy, a t t i t u d e s to w ard s c i v i l r i g h t s , and g e n e r a l v a lu e s . I w i l l f i r s t d e s c r ib e th e c o n te n t o f th e s e them es, i l l u s t r a t i n g them w ith c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e lem en ts w hich a r e e x p re s s io n s o f th e A m erican n a t i o n a l

c o n se n su s. The d e t a i l s a r e g iv e n i n T ab le 5 . T h is e x p o s it io n w i l l be fo llo w e d by a d is c u s s io n o f th e c r i t i c a l is s u e s o f th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e n e s s and th e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e o f th e Am erican e th o s d e l i n e a t e d .

[T ab le 5 a b o u t h e re ]

A m ericans h o ld a v e ry p o s i t i v e view o f th e m se lv e s a s a p e o p le and a n a t i o n , a s may be see n i n P a r t I o f T ab le 5. They see th e m selv e s a s r e l i g i o u s , h a rd -w o rk in g , e n e r g e t i c , m o ra l, and fa m ily o r i e n t e d . They a r e overw helm ingly c o n v in ce d t h a t th e y l i v e in th e la n d o f th e f r e e , c o n s id e r t h e i r econom ic sy stem t o be " j u s t and w is e " , and ta k e g r e a t p r id e i n th e n a t i o n 's e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y . Summing i t a l l up th e y re s o u n d in g ly a f f i r m t h a t th e y a r e proud t o be A m ericans, w hereas th e same k in d o f p r id e in m a n ife ste d by o n ly some 20 p e r c e n t o f West Germans and 30 t o 40 p e r c e n t o f th e Danes and th e Dutch (H ard in g 1 9 8 6 ).

In th e realm o f w hat may be c a l l e d p o l i t i c a l economy,

c o v ered i n P a r t I I o f T ab le 5 , A m ericans e v i d e n t l y b e l i e v e q u i t e u n ifo rm ly i n th e r i g h t n e s s o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y and th e v i r t u e s o f th e f r e e e n t e r p r i s e sy stem , and t o t a l l y deny th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a n o th e r sy stem , i n p a r t i c u l a r communism o r s o c ia lis m , c o u ld i n any way im prove t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . W ith e q u a l f e r v o r th e y e x t o l th e v i r t u e s o f t h e i r c o m p e titiv e , m u l t i - p a r t y sy stem o f

governm ent. E v id e n tly th e key v a lu e t h i s sy stem em bodies f o r them i s th e p a r t i c i p a t o r y a s p e c t o f dem ocracy. Thus, o v e r 90 p e r c e n t a f f ir m t h a t ev ery o n e sh o u ld have an e q u a l r i g h t t o

in f lu e n c e governm ent and t o h o ld p u b lic o f f i c e . M oreover th e US p u b lic s e e s an in tim a te lin k a g e betw een th e economy and th e p o l i t y , a lm o st u n ifo rm ly a g re e in g t h a t p r i v a t e p r o p e r ty and f r e e e n t e r p r i s e a r e n e c e s s a ry t o , and a r e th e b e s t g u a ra n te e o f , th e freedom th e y so v ig o r o u s ly c la im t o have and t o c h e r i s h .

Of th e e lem en ts o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e , none w ins s tr o n g e r s u p p o rt among A m ericans th a n th o s e which a s s u r e c i v i l r i g h t s ,

w hich th e y seem to c o n ce iv e o f a s m a in ly p e r s o n a l and i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s . As in d ic a te d i n P a r t I I I o f T able 5, n i n e t y sev en

p e r c e n t c la im t o " b e lie v e " i n freedom o f s p e e c h , and th e y do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean f o r th e m se lv e s o n ly , b ecau se 93 p e r c e n t s u p p o rt th e p r o p o s itio n t h a t u n le s s a l l can speak o u t th e t r u t h c a n n o t be found. In d e e d , some k in d o f t o l e r a n c e f o r d is a g re e m e n t o r

t e n t a t i v e n e s s a b o u t a b s o lu t e s seems t o u n d e r l i e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s i n t h i s realm . Thus, th e y sa y t h a t on m ost m a tte r s t h e r e i s no sim p le r i g h t o r wrong b ecau se t h e r e a r e two s i d e s t o e v e ry i s s u e , and 91 p e r c e n t f e e l t h a t t o show an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p e o p le you d is a g r e e w ith i s more a s ig n o f m a tu r ity th a n o f w eak n ess.

T urn in g t o th e v a lu e s w hich a r e supposed t o g u id e e v e ry d a y l i v i n g , (d e s c rib e d i n P a r t IV o f T ab le 5) we s e e t h a t A m ericans seem t o th in k o f l i f e a s a r a c e , w ith th e p r i z e g o in g t o th o s e who run h a r d e s t , f a s t e s t , and l o n g e s t . C o m p e titio n k e ep s one on o n e 's t o e s , and p e o p le a r e presum ed t o be made b e t t e r by b e in g banged a b o u t by th e h a rd knocks o f l i f e . U n d e rly in g t h i s v iew i s a s tr o n g work e t h i c w hich c o n s id e r s l a z i n e s s a s i n . The lo c u s o f c o n tr o l in a l l t h i s i s c l e a r : i t i s w ith in th e p e rs o n and n o t i n th e sy stem , b ecau se w hat happens t o one i s h i s own d o in g .

F o llo w in g th e image o f th e r a c e , w hat m a tte r s m ost i s f a i r n e s s , t h a t i s , th e r u l e s o f th e game m ust be th e same f o r a l l p l a y e r s even i f some become p e r e n n ia l l o s e r s . To change th e r u l e s so t h a t th e h an d icap p ed can w in i s v i o l a t i o n o f th e i n t e g r i t y o f th e game i t s e l f .

These fo u r them es c o u ld , I b e l i e v e , be r e a d i l y su p p lem en ted by o th e r realm s o f g e n e ra l agreem en t i n th e A m erican p u b l i c . I

have t e n t a t i v e e v id en c e th e r e may be a t o t a l o f up to te n su ch them es. T o g e th e r, such a s e t would d e s c r ib e th e c o n te n t o f an Am erican c re e d , o r a s McClosky h as l a b e l l e d i t , th e A m erican

E th o s. In my view such an e th o s sh o u ld be a s one elem en t d e f in in g a n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . The c h a lle n g e t o such an assu m p tio n , and i t s d e fe n se may be p r o d u c tiv e ly u n d e rs to o d a s in v o lv in g is s u e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y .

C oncerning r e l i a b i l i t y , i t m ust be acknow ledged t h a t a l l th e h ig h l e v e l s o f agreem ent th e Am erican p u b lic shows i n s u p p o rt o f c e r t a i n g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s can be e ro d e d by ch an g in g th e way i n which th e o r i g i n a l q u e s tio n i s p u t to re s p o n d e n ts , and e s p e c i a l l y by in tr o d u c in g c o n d itio n s a f f e c t i n g th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th o s e p r i n c i p l e s a lm o st everyone s u b s c r ib e s t o . Thus, th e commitment t o freedom o f speech i s g r e a t l y red u ced i f th e is s u e i s w h e th er t o a llo w th e American Nazi P a r ty o r th e Communist P a r ty th e u se o f th e town h a l l f o r a p u b lic m e e tin g . C a llin g a t t e n t i o n t o d ra m a tic c u r r e n t e v e n ts , such a s an ep idem ic o f d ru g a b u se , can s i m i l a r l y ero d e b e l i e f in th e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f th e p r iv a c y o f th e home. In my view , how ever, th e f a c t t h a t so many s p e c i a l and c o n tr a r y c o n d itio n s co u ld r e a d i l y o p e r a te i n th e minds o f m ost re sp o n d e n ts makes i t a l l th e more im p re s s iv e t h a t th e y sh o u ld so u n ifo rm ly a f f ir m any o f th e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s w hich th e y

e v id e n t ly s u p p o rt. M oreover, th o s e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s a r e n o t su p p o rte d j u s t o n ce, a s i f by a c c i d e n t . R e s ta te d i n v a r io u s form s and su b m itte d to th e p o p u la tio n i n d i f f e r e n t y e a r s , th e y a r e r e g u l a r l y and r e p e a te d ly r e a f f ir m e d . T h is , i t seems t o me, marks them a s e lem en ts r e l e v a n t t o a d e l i n e a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l