Summary and emerging issues

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from environmental change are multiple and adversely affect economic production in the Atankwidi basin. The overall impact has been low economic production, especially agriculture and excruciating poverty that undermine ability to meet basic needs in the basin. Beyond physical factors, some social characteristics of the population predispose them to increased livelihood vulnerability. Social expenditures on funeral rites and care for high levels of dependants at household levels also contribute to livelihood vulnerability. In addition, discriminatory colonial development policies against the

„Northern Territories‟ partly contributed to the state of underdevelopment in the area.

This led to a wide developmental gap between the northern half and southern half of the country to the disadvantage of the former. Although successive governments have made efforts to accelerate development, commitment to investments has been low so that the entire north continues to experience chronic poverty.

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decades due to the population momentum effect although growth rate is declining. This will further increase pressure on the available land and other natural resources to meet the needs of the increasing population. This population –natural resources dynamics in the Atankwidi basin mirrors the situation at the wider level – regional and national levels.

Physical space of vulnerability: In my discussions, I have shown that (1) desertification of the natural vegetation; (2) the geological formation and degradation of productive soils; and (3) climatic variability, especially rainfall combine to „shape‟ the physical space of vulnerability. This undermines livelihood sustainability in the Atankwidi basin.

In my discussions, I have shown that conversion of the natural vegetation into croplands due to increasing demand for food is a major cause of desertification. I have also shown that continuous cultivation (land mining) and limited fallows have led to significant soil fertility decline. In respect of soils, the discussions show that there is an element of „poor inherent soil fertility‟ arising from the geological formation and parent rocks. However, these soils have been fertile enough to support crop cultivation for generations.

Nonetheless, continuous cultivation combined with soil erosion facilitated by exposure of land due to desertification has led to significant degradation of productive top soils. This has resulted in poor soil fertility. In addition to these physical constraints is climatic variability, especially rainfall variability. I have shown in my discussions that inter-annual and intra-inter-annual variability in rainfall have resulted in a mix of dry and wet years and months although many researchers agree that a drying trend is observable. I have illustrated that such rainfall variability adversely affect crop yields in the basin. Indeed, the overall impact of all these physical constraints is low agricultural production, including both food crop and livestock production.

Economic environment and poverty: Given that majority of the population (69%) engage in subsistence farming for their livelihood, degradation of the very natural resource base that is put to cultivation has resulted in widespread poverty in the Atankwidi basin. As subsistence farmers, they predominantly depend on their own production for food and income. Given low agricultural productivity arising from environmental constraints, the harvest is often low and inadequate for household consumption. Secondly, none or only a

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little may be available for generating an income. In fact, sale of own produced staple grains are rare among households in the basin. Due to low production and incomes, malnutrition, hunger and starvation is common across the entire basin. Given the lack of formal education for a majority of the population, occupational mobility is lacking. Many people are stacked with low productivity subsistence farming that perpetuates poverty and livelihood vulnerability among households.

Socio-cultural space of vulnerability: Two socio-cultural variables of the environment, (1) high dependency ratios and (2) customary funeral rites contribute to livelihood vulnerability in the basin. Medium to large household sizes (3-8 persons) account for about 70% of household sizes in the KND. This has lead to a disproportionately large number of dependants that place a heavy burden on few household heads and their spouses who have a responsibility for meeting the needs of the former. Such burdens have undermined the economic wellbeing of many households and rendered them vulnerable to livelihood failures. In addition, customary funeral rites, which are held in high esteem, are expensive. Funeral rites often involve offerings involving poultry, small ruminants and sometimes cattle. Staple grains are drawn from household stocks for making offerings and for preparing food to entertain guests. In all instances, this practise is not limited to the household organizing the funeral rite. Many relations, neighbours and friends also draw on their respective household food stocks for supporting such funeral rites. For a single funeral rite, many households compromise some quantity of their food stocks. Since their food stocks are very often inadequate for all year round consumption, this increases their vulnerability to hunger and livelihood failure.

Policy planning and regional development: In my discussions, I have pointed out that both colonial and postcolonial development policy have had various impacts on the state of development (underdevelopment) in northern Ghana. Historically, the neglect of colonial development policy has had adverse implications on the state of development (underdevelopment) in northern Ghana. The north of Ghana was deprived of necessary investments in economic and social infrastructure in favour of investing in such infrastructure in southern Ghana to support exploitation of raw materials for export. In

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addition, northern Ghana was designated a labour reserve to provide labour requirements for the extractive industries south of Kintampo (southern Ghana). In the postcolonial era, successive governments have tried to address the poor state of development in northern Ghana within the framework of national development programmes. Through such interventions, some improvements in economic and social infrastructure have been achieved. However, poverty remains a major problem confronting the people of the north. Northern Ghana remains the poorest part of the country and the gap in poverty between the southern and northern half is widening. Investments have been low relative to the magnitude of the development challenges and many policies lack commitment to geographical targeting for addressing this development imbalance in the country.