Problem Statement

The central goal of education has been to promote learning. In school teaching, this objective frequently leads to a focus on student learning outcomes, such as enhancing academic achievement (Littlewood, 2007). However, students with high academic achievements may not be actively involved in or experience joy during learning processes. Active learning and involvement are essential in educational science, especially in mathematics education. For instance, cross-cultural researchers—from the third Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) of 2003—tested the performances of eighth-grade students and reported that those from East Asian countries (e.g., Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong SAR, and Japan) had achieved above-average mathematics scores over the past two decades (Mullis et al., 2016; Mullis et al., 1999). These high academic performances in mathematics are treated as indicators of effective learning. Some researchers, however, pointed out a mismatch between student engagement and achievement in the East Asian region (Song, 2013). In particular, interest and motivation regarding mathematics were treated as positive predictors of school achievement (Heinze et al., 2005; Köller et al., 2001). However, successful academic performance does not imply active involvement in learning processes (Pinxten et al., 2014). In particular, holding the interest and motivation of learners is a challenge in mathematics education (Frenzel et al., 2010). Only examining learning outcomes does not provide insights into what contributes to active learning. Based on this idea, an in-depth examination of the complicated and ongoing learning processes is vital.

To explore student involvement in the learning process, educators and researchers take a step back from the learning outcomes and pay more attention to learning activities. If learning is understood as a process, it requires active involvement; if learning is treated as an activity, it needs active participants. However, compared to observable learning outcomes, not much is known about learning processes and whether individuals are actively involved in learning. In classrooms, it is vital to involve students in cognitive and noncognitive aspects (Fredricks et al., 2004); however, many cognitive and noncognitive constructs cannot be directly observed or measured. From a theoretical perspective, it is necessary to deepen the understanding of

unobservable components conducive to learning and develop a comprehensive model to explain student learning processes. Therefore, student involvement remains a work in progress for classroom practice and research (Astin, 1999; Klein, 2007). To gain more insights into the active involvement and engagement of learners in schools, educational researchers have emphasized various teaching approaches and tried different techniques.

Considering the challenges associated with conventional teaching processes, educators quickly adopt new techniques or teaching methods to fulfill individual needs (Perkins, 1991).

As a result, the appropriate combination of technology and education is a much-debated topic.

(Maloy et al., 2017; Mishra et al., 2009). In this situation, using educational technology to deal with students' diversity is an optimal alternative (Mishra et al., 2016b). In the 21st century classroom, educational researchers assume that high-quality teaching can effectively integrate technology in instructions (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).

The advances of technology have rapidly changed human societies, and the field of education is no exception (Fishman & Dede, 2016). With advanced technology available for educational purposes, scholars have started to evaluate the necessity of integrating technology in learning environments (Reigeluth, 1989). More directly, educators are confronted with the question of whether to begin to use technology for teaching. This uncertain and skeptical attitude is perhaps due to a lack of understanding of whether teaching with technology makes a difference in student learning, either positively (Cheung & Slavin, 2013) or negatively (Clark, 1983; Clark, 1994). For decades, educational researchers have been concerned with how students learn and how to enhance their learning. Even in a technology-based context, promoting student learning is still the central focus of such research (Bruce & Levin, 1997; Fu, 2013).

When learning occurs in a new learning environment, deeper understandings of the student learning processes are required. In the meantime, it is a long way for researchers to find the effective approach for appropriate learning opportunities and promote student involvement in learning (Astin, 1996; Greeno & Gresalfi, 2008), especially in mathematics education (Bell

& Pape, 2012; Goos, 2014; Watson, 2003). More importantly, another critical issue is that using technology for learning is a matter of equity in education (Kent & McNergney, 1999;

Maloy et al., 2017). Educators, researchers, and policymakers have made extensive efforts to improve equal opportunity in education. In school settings, education equity does not mean providing identical inputs to each student. Instead, fairness is providing adequate support to each student (Anderson, 2007). To achieve equity, schooling is supposed to improve individual students with diverse learning characteristics and experiences (Broudy, 2016). Therefore,

teaching has a long history of accommodating individual differences in learning, such as students’ motivational and cognitive characteristics (Wang, 2001). However, obstacles prevent the fulfillment of the standard of fair learning opportunity. Considering the limited class time, teaching resources, and other practical reasons, it is difficult to achieve equity in student learning using the traditional approach (Lazenby, 2016).

Regarding the use of technology in school settings, there is no consensus on the efficacy of technology-based instruction on the student learning process (Clark, 1994), despite substantial debates on whether the effectiveness of technology on student learning is overestimated (Chu, 2014; Heinecke et al., 2001; Witte & Rogge, 2014). The contradictory arguments result from a limited understanding of how technology is used as a learning tool in the classroom. Additionally, evidence that learning with technology is beneficial remains insufficient. Even though it is extraordinarily challenging to assess the impact of technology on student learning, educational researchers can bring learning theory, use of technology, and educational practices together.

Changes in teaching approach and development in individual learning bring new schooling issues on a daily basis (Russell et al., 2005). Using technology to facilitate student learning is a complex process that lacks theoretical and practical guidance on effective implementation (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Both in traditional classrooms or a classroom integrated with technology, supporting student learning is an essential goal. However, new technologies may stimulate novel interactions between teaching and learning processes.

Therefore, the current dissertation seeks a clearer understanding of enhancing student involvement in a technology-based classroom. To achieve this goal, more in-depth understandings at both the theoretical level and practical level are needed. Specifically, this dissertation attempts to (a) bridge learning theories with technology-based instruction and (b) seek empirical evidence of whether and how technology-based instruction influences student learning in the classroom environment. By conducting empirical studies, I make a small movement from learning theories to new classroom environments. While investigating the interaction of technology, teaching, and learning in this new environment, it is difficult to achieve the above two goals without making basic assumptions about how students learn. For instance, is learning a simple replication of knowledge, or is it an active process that requires learners' involvement? Which factors influence learning? The next section explicitly describes assumptions regarding the learning process and learners to provide a foundation for the learning theories in the present dissertation.