Implications and Recommendations

Existent learning theories encompass a broad range of topics across the fields of psychology and educational sciences. In these fields, rapidly changing constructs and assumptions in student learning require updated guidance at the theoretical level. These changes have resulted from technological advances and heightened attention to individual learning. Comprehensive learning theories are required to address the challenges of modern education. Chapter 2 addressed the connections between the supply-use model (at the class level and student level) and integrating technology, focusing on changes in student characteristics when using technology (2.6.1). A comparison of the individual learning prerequisites between students participating in conventional instruction and those participating in ICT-based instruction clarifies the nature of the learner. In other words, the impact of using technology on student characteristics highlights the necessity of integrating ICT-based instruction into the general theoretical framework of learning. The present dissertation bridges the gap between adaptive teaching theory and technology-based learning by discussing the adaptive potential of technology (2.6.2). Adaptive teaching is widely accepted as a vital criterion for enhancing teaching effectiveness; however, there is no clear definition of adaptive teaching and no concrete guidance on how to implement it. The theoretical section of this dissertation introduced the theory of instruction and situated the essential instructional compositions (e.g., teaching content, assessment, and feedback) within the construct of adaptability. This discussion supports the theory that adaptive teaching can become more than an abstract construct and can be manipulated in particular classroom activities. Connecting the concept of adaptive teaching to classroom activities remains largely theoretical. The adaptive potential of technology plays a critical role in making adaptive teaching applicable to actual teaching practices. Elaboration of the possibilities of using technology to support adaptive teaching narrows the gap between learning theories and classroom processes. Additional discussion about the implication of technology-based adaptive teaching for classroom practices is provided later in this chapter (7.3.3).

In the empirical section of this dissertation, the findings of Study 1 indicate a new relationship between individual learning prerequisites and the student learning process under the condition of using tablet computers. Certain student characteristics are considered preconditions for effective learning and successful academic performance in the original

associations addressed in the supply-use model. However, the empirical evidence of the present studies provides new insight into the magnitude of this influence. Individual motivational and cognitive characteristics—such as prior knowledge, intrinsic motivation, and academic self-concept—play a critical role in predicting learning behaviors and learning activities. However, the strength and direction of these predictions can be manipulated. In sum, changes in learning and assumptions of learner characteristics necessitate an update of learning theories.

The present dissertation addresses a small number of factors in the supply-use model.

The model is a comprehensive theoretical framework that includes many variables that can influence teaching and learning processes at different levels. Future research could examine the interactions between ICT-based instruction and other variables. For example, the research could address whether parents' attitudes, perceptions, and technology literacy may be influential factors in the effective use of new media in the home environment (e.g., using digital devices after school). Future researchers should continue to explore the relationships between the use of technology and affective, cognitive, and behavioral characteristics of teachers and students to enrich learning theories. According to the theoretical framework of the supply-use model, a range of old and new constructs have reciprocal relationships. Situating the integration of technology in these complex interactions warrants in-depth and continued research investigation. Teacher-student interactions and person-situation interactions remain unclear in the context of ICT-based instruction, leaving space for future researchers to conduct an additional analytical inquiry.

7.3.2 For Future Research

The present dissertation provides an initial investigation of the integration of technology in classrooms and whether and how it influences student learning processes.

However, many issues and questions remain unanswered. The phenomena and contexts where technology-related teaching and learning occur should be further investigated and explained in future studies.

The first recommendation of this dissertation is inspired by the limitations of the study design of education research discussed earlier in this chapter. Teaching and learning are complex interactive processes by nature, and much of the education research on this topic, therefore, uses the qualitative method. Certain classroom characteristics (e.g., unpredictability and multidimensionality) obstruct the implementation of strict control (Doyle, 1986; Shuell, 1996). However, future research to explore the effect of using technology on student learning

will require well-organized interventions. Specifically, it is recommended that future researchers use a random allocation of individual students to the control and treatment groups (Torgerson & Torgerson, 2001) and attempt to construct an identical setting for all participants.

Additionally, emerging with educational technology, the debate of the relationship between educational technology and teachers has started (Fried & Goldberg, 1978). However, little knowledge and limited empirical evidence on this topic hinder the comprehensive understanding of the interaction between teachers and technology. The discussion of whether the implementation of technology can or will replace teachers in modern education could be explored in future studies. The educational technology should be used as a digital tool that aids teaching and instruction to reach higher effectiveness. Therefore, this is the second recommendation for future research to investigate teachers' roles and their relationship with new technology in future classrooms.

Continuing to discuss the relationship between teaching and the use of technology, the third recommendation concerns the relationship between technology-related research and the development of technology (i.e., tool-centered versus purpose-centered). Based on what is currently known about technology use in education, existing digital devices and programs have long limited technology-based teaching and related research (Kent & McNergney, 1999).

Investigations of technology-related teaching and learning have depended on the technology and software programs that have been made available for educational purposes. Therefore, the research goals and study design are not achievable unless specific tools and software can be accessed in classroom settings. However, according to the values provided by the instructional theory, teaching methods should base on the goals of teaching and learning, rather than the digital tools (Schwartz et al., 1999). Following this argument, educational research should not be unidirectional and only reliant on preexisting tools or programs. An alternative suggestion is to strengthen collaborations between program developers and schools.

Ideally, technology can provide optimal support for teaching and learning if it is developed based on the requirements of classroom practices and scientific research, and researchers should therefore take an active role in selecting a learning program that matches study purposes. Study 2 indicated that the quality of technology integration is key for a long-term positive influence on students' active involvement in learning. However, the estimations of the quality of technology integration were limited to the existing software and programs available for mathematics learning (e.g., conducting simulation, calculating, drawing graphs).

Consequently, most technology integration in education remains at the enhancement level and has limited application for transformative purposes (Hamilton et al., 2016). Effective learning

is dependent on the ways in which people use tools and software. A focus on the quality of integration must not isolate technology as a vehicle from teaching goals, curriculum plans, and student learning needs (Lei, 2010). Rather, these factors should be appropriately observed and manipulated to achieve particular research goals. New programs for learning purposes must be developed to examine the use of technology in higher-order learning.

The fourth recommendation for future study is to explore the potential of technology to support student learning in a broad educational context. Student learning and the external environment are closely interrelated in that the processes of learning are influenced by students’

interactions with external technologies and people. In the modern learning environment, researchers must reconsider the nature of student learning. For example, technology in higher education is frequently integrated into a large lecture hall to reach large audiences (Haddad &

Jurich, 2002). Does technology used in this way produce a similarly positive effect on students' active involvement in learning compared with the integration of technology in a typical secondary school classroom with fewer students? Based on the findings of person-situation research, it could assume a non-linear relationship between class size and the use of technology (e.g., an inverted U-shaped relationship). In addition to the balance of ideal class size, researchers must consider that technology integration may introduce distraction to student learning and negatively impact classroom management. Previous studies have concluded that small classes are ideal for the introduction of technology (Glass & Smith, 1979; Hanushek et al., 1999); however, new classroom settings may lead to a different conclusion regarding the ideal class size (Brühwiler & Blatchford, 2011). When implementing technology in a real class setting, the optimal class size for ICT-based instruction is a critical factor that remains unclear.

The fifth recommendation for future research is to expand the investigation of technology-enhanced learning beyond classrooms. Enhancing student involvement in learning processes does require support from schools and teachers. Simultaneously, parents and family environments can also motivate students’ involvement and facilitate their engagement in using technology for learning (Shin et al., 2019; Vaala & Bleakley, 2015). Therefore, technology-enhanced learning should not be limited to school settings but extend to other external environments. Existing research has not explored whether and how parents use technology to support their children’s involvement in learning. Researchers interested in the sustainable use of technology for educational purposes would do well to examine how different technologies implemented in the family environment may change student learning. Situating future studies in family environments or otherwise outside the classroom would provide a complete picture of the use of technology to support learning.

As noted earlier in the limitation of study design, the current research project did not organize a randomized control trial at the individual level. The complexity and unpredictability of the classroom environment make the randomization in educational research full of obstacles (Torgerson & Torgerson, 2001; Torgerson et al., 2013). Besides, even the intervention is well-organized, the information on how students learn, and the way of teaching are still missing (Sherin, 2003). Considering the practical restriction in school settings, recent researchers attempt to use video as a digital tool for classroom observation (Borko et al., 2008; Stigler &

Hiebert, 1997). Digital technologies provide support for teaching and learning and assist educational research (Mishra et al., 2016b). For instance, video observation is a common approach for collecting information regarding teachers’ and students’ behaviors that are situated in particular classroom environments (Hiebert & Stigler, 2000). Through conducting video study, it provides chances for researchers to capture the teacher-student interaction while using educational technology in classrooms (Sherin & van Es, 2005). With the aid of technology (e.g., camera, microphones), the complexity of technology-based teaching and learning processes is recorded for later analysis. Since the classroom processes are captured, the gathered information could also aid the longitudinal analyses of the individual learning while using educational technology (Hiebert et al., 2003). Therefore, for the future studies, the limitation of lack of experimental control and little understanding of how the technology is applied can be minimized by the video observation and video data analyses.

In practices, many potentials of the technology and digital tools stay at the theoretical level without properly implemented in classrooms. Understanding the impact of technology-based instruction and how it takes place in classroom practices is a long-term and ongoing process for scientific researchers and educational practitioners. In future decades, educational researchers and psychologists should continue to examine teaching and learning processes and embrace broader integration of technology in education.

7.3.3 For Classroom Practices

It is critical to consider the potential implications of increasing learning opportunities in classroom practice. Previous literature has addressed the use of technology to facilitate student learning in secondary education. However, schools and teachers interested in pursuing effective ways to use technology in subject-specific classrooms have no concrete solution. The mechanisms that drive the integration of technology into learning remain particularly unclear.

Teachers who attempt to situate learning activities in the context of technology often struggle

to integrate and associate the use of technology with particular learning tasks. The present dissertation has discussed the corresponding learning theories and has provided empirical evidence concerning how to support the use of technology while teaching and learning. By extending existing findings regarding technology-related learning, the present dissertation supports schools and teachers in understanding the role of technology and providing useful recommendations to integrate technology into classroom practices.

The first implication for classroom practices is the indication that the use of technology has a positive influence on student learning processes. Uncertainty regarding whether to implement technology in the classroom stems from the mixed results of previous studies.

However, the empirical findings of the present dissertation provide evidence to support the advantages of integrating tablet computers into mathematics classes. After several months using tablet computers, the effect of students’ active involvement on individual learning prerequisites significantly decreased. Teachers of students with diverse motivational and cognitive characteristics could use technology to provide students with an alternative to compensate for the heterogeneity within a class and facilitate students' active engagement in learning processes.

Second, the present dissertation provides an improved understanding of the comprehensive categorization of integrating technology into mathematics classes. To enhance teachers' knowledge of the operationalization of technology in classroom activities, it is helpful to introduce frameworks regarding the levels of technology integration, along with numerous examples. The findings of Study 2 provide insight into the mechanisms of using technology in classrooms. According to the empirical evidence, the quantity of integration (i.e., the frequent use of technology) is vital at the beginning of the integration process. In the long term, the quality of implementation will determine the effectiveness of technology integration. Study 2 categorized the level of integration based on the SAMR model (Puentedura, 2003) and found that technology could be used at the primary level as a simple replacement of traditional paper-based textbooks and blackboard or to support the efficiency of calculation for mathematics learning. Additionally, teachers should implement transformational use of technology to facilitate a prolonged positive effect on student learning. For example, simulation tasks can be situated on tablet computers to support advanced learning. At the advanced level of operationalization, learning activities may be included that would not be possible without technology support.

The Replacement, Amplification, and Transformation (RAT; Hughes et al., 2006) model is an alternative similar to the SAMR model. It can be used to advise teachers about how

to integrate technology into different learning activities. Increased empirical evidence and scientific support will help decrease uncertainty and reverse otherwise skeptical attitudes toward integrating technology. In other words, teachers who have a better understanding of the purpose of technology integration will be more confident in using technology in their classes.

In other words, it becomes easier for teachers to decide on which technology they might use.

Previous positive results from scientific research provide an overview of the benefits of technology-based education to schools and teachers. In turn, based on sound evidence, schools may be willing to invest additional resources to support teachers, such as increasing the use of ICT in teacher training or aiding ensure that teachers have access to the most current ICT knowledge. Additional support and concrete guidance may make teachers more willing to embrace new technologies and tools for daily practice. Prospective teachers also require preparation to account for the growing trend of integrating technology into education. For example, Koehler and Mishra (2009) have noted that technology knowledge plays a critical role in effective teaching.

Finally, the present dissertation provides empirical evidence of the unique potential of technology to support adaptive teaching. Teachers address a wide diversity of students and learning characteristics, and their corresponding classroom activities must adapt. However, agreement on the importance of adaptive teaching does not provide solutions in the form of classroom processes. The present dissertation suggests that technology may provide an alternative method to support adaptive teaching. For example, limited teaching time makes it difficult for teachers to provide individual feedback for each student on their learning performance. Technology's potential for adaptability can aid scaffold learning by providing automatic evaluation based on students' responses (Veldkamp et al., 2011). The present dissertation supports the argument that technology is a vehicle that can be used to serve teaching and learning but not the other way around.