Interpretation of Main Findings

The empirical studies included in this dissertation aimed to explore the interaction of use of tablet computers and student characteristics, to investigate the persistent effect of these interactions on students' learning processes, and to explore the potential of ICT-based instruction to support adaptive teaching (see Table 7.1). Each study begins with a focus on individual learners and ends with a deeper understanding of how to effectively integrate technology into learning. This section will summarize the main findings of the empirical studies and provide an additional interpretation of the results.

7.1.1 Study 1

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between student learning prerequisites and student involvement in mathematics learning and questioned whether this relationship would change under the condition of using tablet computers. The results indicated that students' prior knowledge of mathematics, intrinsic motivation, and math self-concept were positive predictors of their situational interest and cognitive engagement in mathematics classes. The argument of constructivists about leaning is an active knowledge acquisition

process was applicable in the ICT-based instruction. The findings also aligned with previous research findings that identified prior domain-specific knowledge as a reliable predictor of student learning (Dochy et al., 2002). Moreover, the results strengthen the argument that particular student characteristics play a crucial role in learning processes and learning outcomes such as academic achievement. Therefore, the findings provide empirical evidence for the supply-use model, which argues that student characteristics are essential prerequisites for further learning (Helmke & Schrader, 2013).

This study also examined the in which condition the effect of individual learning prerequisites on student involvement in mathematics learning changed. The study findings indicated that the relationship between individual learning prerequisites and student involvement was impacted by whether a student had worked with tablet computers in mathematics classes or not. In particular, after working with tablet computers for an academic semester, the magnitude of the effect of students’ intrinsic motivation on situational interest becomes smaller. Moreover, for those students who had used tablet computers in mathematics classes, the impact of their math self-concept on students’ cognitive engagement decreases.

These interaction findings were in line with our expectations. This finding provides empirical support for the conjectures of learning opportunities, and it indirectly indicates that student learning is an ongoing and dynamic development full of changes (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012).

Although the positive effect of technology integration on student involvement in mathematics learning is detected, the challenge remains for educational researchers in terms of the mechanisms behind the technology use. Building on the current investigation, it is important to notice that the role of educational technology in the learning processes is critical (Lei, 2010).

Simultaneously, this study raises additional questions of whether technology consistently impacts teaching and learning processes and how technology is best integrated into the classroom. These issues were addressed in the next empirical study.

7.1.2 Study 2

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the use of tablet computers enhanced student involvement in mathematics learning over time and explored the mechanisms of technology integration. Given the assumption that tablet usage has a prolonged influence on student involvement in learning processes, Study 2 examined the quantity of quality of using technology that contributes to this influence. Results indicated that students in the control group

Table 7.1

Overview of Three Empirical Studies and Corresponding Aims, Research Questions, Samples, and Study Variables

Study Aim Research question Sample and study variable

Study 1 Investigating the relationship between students' learning prerequisites and student

involvement, and in what context this relationship will change

1) What is the effect of individual learning prerequisites on student involvement in mathematics learning processes?

2) Does the use of tablet computers moderate the

relationship between individual learning prerequisites

1) Is the use of tablet computers in mathematic classes associated with changes in student involvement in mathematics learning over time?

2) Are the changes in student involvement in mathematics learning associated with the quantity of using tablet computers in mathematics classrooms?

3) Are the changes in student involvement in mathematics learning associated with the quality of using tablet computers in the mathematics classrooms?

Study 3 Identifying how the integration of technology could impact student involvement in learning by exploring the potential of technology to support adaptive teaching

1) Do students' perceptions of adaptive teaching associate with the integration of tablet computers in mathematics classrooms?

2) Do students' perceptions of adaptive teaching mediate the relationship between the use of tablet computers and student involvement in mathematics learning?

experienced a decrease in situational interest in mathematics classes across an extended period of time (16 months). In contrast, students in the tablet group experienced a short-term increase in situational interest in mathematics classes (i.e., over four months from the initial measurement to the second measurement points). Then, even with the working experiences with tablets, a decline in situational interest appears again in the long term (i.e., over 16 months between the second and third measurement point). Therefore, irrespective of whether it has used tablets in mathematics or not, the students’ situational interest steadily declined. This decrease phenomenon is consistent with previous literature findings, which pointed out a continuous decrease in mathematics interest during adolescence (Frenzel et al., 2010; Frenzel et al., 2012; Gottfried et al., 2007).

Additionally, in the short term, the difference between the tablet and non-tablet groups regarding changes in students' situational interest was statistically significant, suggesting that the use of tablet computers significantly enhanced students’ situational interest in mathematics.

However, this enhancement did not continue over a long period of time, and therefore it may, in fact, be due to the novelty effect of using tablet computers. Furthermore, the findings identified that students in the non-tablet group showed a significantly more substantial short-term decrease in their cognitive engagement than those in the tablet group. However, there were no significant between-group differences in student involvement in the long term. Thus, findings in current research consistent with the argument of novelty effect, which claimed a student’s excitement of innovative technology is the first response rather than the pattern of implementation that adherence along the learning process (Shin et al., 2019).

The findings reported in Study 2 related to the quantity and quality of integration provided additional evidence for technology use in learning environments. High frequency of technology usage positively influenced students' situational interest and cognitive engagement, though only in the short term. Based on these findings, teachers who wish to see long-term changes in students' cognitive engagement should integrate technology into transformative classroom activities such as working with learning programs and conducting simulations. The use of tablet computers to do less sophisticated activities (e.g., to make calculations, draw graphs, or complete individual homework assignments) does not activate the potential of technology to influence students' learning responses. Study 2 provides useful information on how to achieve a sustained impact on student learning through the integration of technology.

Thus, the overall findings provide an insight into the effective integration of technology in mathematics learning and underline the importance of the quality of integration. These results indicate that despite the novelty effect of using tablet computers at an early stage, the

technology in itself does not facilitate students’ situational interest and promote their cognitive engagement in learning processes. Rather than simply increasing the amount of using time, embedding technology in high-quality classroom activities is the key to effective integration that, in turn, support student involvement in learning.

7.1.3 Study 3

Study 3 aimed to examine the process of how tablet computers influence student involvement in mathematics classes. It hypothesized that students' perceptions of adaptive teaching mediated the relationship between technology integration and student learning processes. According to the results of the model comparison, confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that the concept of perceived adaptive teaching could be specified in three facets:

adaptive content, adaptive assessment, and adaptive feedback. Additionally, the study results of the multi-group model indicated that students who worked with tablets for mathematics instruction perceived higher adaptive teaching than those who did not. This finding held for all three facets of student perceived adaptive teaching (i.e., adaptive content, adaptive assessment, and adaptive feedback).

Educational researchers regard adaptive teaching as a critical criterion for effective teaching. During instruction, a teacher gains awareness of individual differences in student learning (e.g., students’ motivation or the mental effort they invest in learning activities). The teacher recognizes students’ individual learning needs and implements different strategies and content to address those needs and involve students in learning. For example, the teacher may adjust task difficulties according to students' needs. In addition to tailored content and learning activities, teachers provide evaluations and personal feedback in real-time, based on students' responses and performance.

Student diversity growth calls for appropriate teaching methods to accommodate students’ strengths and limitations (Suprayogi et al., 2017). On the one hand, teachers have long been expected to accommodate students' learning prerequisites by using diverse teaching methods and technologies. On the other hand, it is enduring attention for researchers in the gap between the ideal classroom situation and reality. The adaptive potential of technology is particularly essential for education in today’s world because students have a wider range of individual differences in their motivational and cognitive characteristics. However, the adaptive potential of technology has rarely been examined empirically. The findings of Study 3 indicate that tablet computers do have the potential to support adaptive teaching when

integrated appropriately. The empirical findings confirm technology's adaptability potential based on differing student perceptions of adaptive teaching in tablet classes and non-tablet classes. Working with tablet computers can support students in accessing learning opportunities that are suitable for them. Tablets, digital tools, and software offer additional learning alternatives and enable students to study at their own pace.

7.2 Strengths and Limitations