History and Phenomenology of Public Space in Indonesia

The history of public space in Indonesia began in the Pre-Colonial Era (1200-1400). Public spaces flourished in the Colonial Era (1500-1942) and development continued in the Post-Colonial Era (the period since independence, i.e. 1945 onwards)¹⁷. Public space in Indonesia was developed as part of the civic centre. Public space (Alun-alun) brought together important elements of the old kingdom of Java, the palace (as a seat of power), the mosque (place of religion) and the market (key element of the economy). The co-location of these four elements (Alun-alun, palace, mosque and market) was referred to as Caturgatra Tunggal (Widiyastuti, 2013) and became the basic arrangement in cities in the old kingdom of Java (Ikaputra, 1995, as cited in Widiyastuti, 2013).

See Figure 4.1.

Caturgatra Tunggal means ‘four important elements in one unity’. The four elements of the Caturgatra Tunggal were located in the Kuthanegara area, i.e. in the civic centre. There were three traditional, hierarchical zones in the kingdom of Java: Kuthanegara or Nagara (an area that encircled Kraton and the city wall), Negaragung (agricultural land surrounding the capital of the city) and Mancanegara (the periphery) (Widiyastuti, 2013). The nagara was a sacred area, whereas the negaragung and mancanegara were profane areas (Handinoto, 2015). See Figure 4.2.

The physical shape of Alun-alun which is rectangle, parallelogram and almost square corresponding to the role of the square as the centre of spatial orientation called “Mancapat”

(Zoetmulder, 1935, as cited in Wiryomartono, 1995). This concept is based on the four directions of the North, East, South and West, which Javanese people use as a concept for spatial guidance and direction of their residence. This is mentioned by Kostof (1991) in The City Shaped about town planning based on the model of the mandala.

Indonesia and its public space were influenced by Javanese Culture and Hinduism (until 1527), Islam and Asian (China) during 1527-1677, colonial forces (1677-1949), and by globalisation since 1949 (Zahnd, 2005).

17 The history of Indonesian cities can be divided into three periods: Pre-Colonial, Colonial and Post-Colonial (Nas, 1986, as cited in Sunaryo, 2014).

43 Figure 4.1. Concept of Caturgatra Tunggal and its Implementation in Alun-alun Yogyakarta

Source: Widiyastuti (2013, p. 15)

Figure 4.2. Traditional Hierarchical Zones in the Kingdom of Java Redrawing based on Handinoto, 2010 and Widiyastuti, 2013

Meanwhile, for further explanation about the history of Indonesian public space, see Table 4.1.

Kuthanegara/Nagara Caturgatra Tunggal was located here Sacred area

Negaragung Profane area

Mancanegara Profane area

Table 4.1. History of Public Space in Indonesia Period Public

Space Type in City Centre

Explanation

Pre-Colonial Era (the Hindu Kingdom, example: the Majapahit Kingdom, 1200-1400)

Alun-alun Public space (Alun-alun) was a sacred place in the northern part of the palace. There were two Alun-aluns, namely Bubat Square (1km x 900m) and North Alun-alun (Waguntur). Bubat Square was the place of a community festival in March or April.

Waguntur Square was located in the inner part of Palace complex and was used for State receptions. On Waguntur Square was located Siti Inggil (the highest place in outdoor Palace) and Shiva Temple was on the East part of Waguntur Square (Handinoto, 2015).

Reconstruction of Alun-alun by Maclaine Pont based on Negarakertagama.

Source: Santoso in Handinoto, 2015

45 Colonial Era

(the Islamic Kingdom until Colonialisation Era, 1500-1945)

Alun-alun in the remaining the Mataram Islamic Kingdom and other Islamic Kingdoms

Mataram Islamic Kingdom, Kasultanan Yogyakarta Hadinigrat and Kasunanan Surakarta Hadiningrat have two squares: Alun-alun Lor (North Alun-alun) and Alun-alun Kidul (South Alun-alun).

In the past, North Alun-alun provided continuous communication between the Sultan and his community. In the centre, there are two banyan trees--a symbol of democratisation--where people waited before meeting the Sultan. This is also where celebrations such as Sodoran, Rampogan, Garebeg and other palace activities took place.

South Alun-alun maintained the relationship between the Sultan and the nobles living around the square. The surface of both squares was covered with fine sand (Handinoto, 1992).

The Difference between the Alun-alun of Surakarta and Yogyakarta

Source: Bimo, 2012 (above); Santoso, 2008 as cited in Sunaryo et al., 2015 & in Handinoto, 2015 (bottom).

Alun-alun in each Regency under Colonial Governance (Daendels Era, 1808-1811, to the end of the Colonial Era in 1942)

In the Colonial Era, every kingdom/regency under Colonial government had an Alun-alun in the civic centre, located near De Grote Post Weg (the main post road). This requirement derived from the Daendels Letter dated May 25, 1810, which requested the Regents of Bandung and Parakanmuncang to move the capital district approached the Post Road.

Basic

Javanese Urban Pattern according to Ikaputra (2005) Source: Sunaryo et al., 2011; Handinoto, 2015

All Regent Houses in Java had an alun-alun (square) in front of their pavilion so that they looked like miniature versions of the palaces of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. Celebrations such as Sodoran, Grebegan were also held in Regent Houses. In this era, there was a mixture power in public space between Javanese Regent and Resident Assistant Office of the Netherlands. The Regent House was located in the southern part of the alun-alun, the Great Mosque was located in the West and the Netherlands’ Resident Assistant's office was located on the North side of the alun-alun opposite the Regent House. Later, when motorised transport became widespread, a bus station was built near the alun-alun and a shopping area developed around the alun-alun. The model of alun-alun was

47 developed as a prototype of the Java city identity in the colonial era. The sacred nature of the alun-alun developed into more populist and profane; then it became a kind of 'civic space'. In the last stage of the Colonial Era, the alun-alun evolved into a sort of 'plaza', like those in Europe. (Handinoto, 1992).

Post-Colonial

Era (After

Independence 1945 - now)

Alun-alun The alun-alun remained a fairly dominant element of cities after Independence (Handinoto, 1992). In the Post-Colonial Era, the alun-alun became a civic focal point, town hall, recreational space and sometimes a temporary market. It became a buffer between formal activities taking place in the building surrounding the square and informal activities (hawkers) inside the square (Rukayah, 2010). It has been transformed from something of historical value into that of economic value (Rukayah, 2005). There are alun-alun in Java and in city centres throughout Indonesia. The form and location are variable: sometimes the alun-alun is located near the river and the sea, becoming a landmark and an important element of the city’s identity.

Alun-aluns in Indonesian Cities.

Above: Alun-alun Bandung,

Bottom: Alun-alun Tenggarong Kutai Kartanegara Source: Bro Bali, n.d.

Development Era

(1980-now)

New Plaza Alun-alun became public facilities and public spaces. In new cities, new public spaces also emerged inline with the rate of economic growth and the dramatic increase in the middle-income strata. Public spaces are not always open, green spaces; sometimes they are located in an enclosed area, such as an inner court of the CBD area. There are now many forms of public space, such as plazas in new residential areas, new CBDs and waterfront areas and town squares in shopping areas. The profile of users is also changing; sometimes it needs particular behaviour here and control in this new public space.

An example of the new kind of public space is Cilandak Town Square (Citos) in Jakarta (Prihutami, 2008).

From this evidence, Astrapia (2011, para. 5) concluded that “The early concept of alun-alun is different from the Greek ‘agora’ of earlier times. It was not created by means of democracy over peoples’ supremacy; instead, politically it was created using the supreme power of the king and divinely designed as a sacred open space for ceremonies to the Gods. It was a symbol of harmony between macrocosm and microcosm and a gate to the Palace, which was considered part of the universe.” She convinced that stands an inheritance of harmonisation and power; it was also used as festival and marketplace. Today Indonesian public spaces are becoming places for socialising, democratic action, recreation, economic activity, leisure, development of ideas and performing lifestyles.