1. Introduction
1.2. Civil society, reconstruction and reconciliation: the methodological framework
1.2.1. Defining the context
Some relevant issues regarding reconstruction processes have been took into account while defining the context of the investigation, and can be summarised as follows:
– Relevance of the international intervention on peace building. The key role played by the military mandate and the rules of engagement as they have a strong impact on post-conflict reconstruction;
– Specific initiatives within the reconstruction process. The role of civil society in the reconciliation processes within local communities and its commitment towards sustainable development processes;
– Interrelation between conflict, humanitarian action and development. The need to analyse the links between two processes: the negotiation process among the parties at conflict, and the post-conflict reconstruction, as they interact and influence each other.
The analysis of the role played by civil society in the grey zone has been further explored for each case study. The grey zone is the period following to a violent conflict, in which the affected communities do not enjoy a sufficient level of stability such as to allow a safe transition to peace. This means that the grey zone is a transitional phase which duration cannot be predicted1. In the grey zone, one or more conditions contribute to determining an uncertain and ambiguous context, while others contribute towards the creation of structural stability. Some of these conditions are of specific interest to this research, and can be divided into four groups: Peace process, Governance and democratisation, Reconstruction and Security. In order to better understand the context, particularly the conflict dynamics, a conflict analysis approach2 has been adopted.
Moreover, a comprehensive analysis assessing the actions of two macro categories, civilian and military, was developed. The respective tasks and their distribution between the two have been considered, as well as the balance between security and confidence-building in the stabilization processes. Furthermore, the international and national contexts, together with
∗ The definition of reconciliation adopted for this research is as follows: “[...] Reconciliation is both a goal – something to achieve – and a process – a means to achieve that goal. It is an over-arching which includes a search for truth, justice, forgiveness, healing and so on. […] It is a means finding a way to live alongside former enemies […], to coexist with them, to develop the degree of cooperation necessary to share our society with them, so that we all have better lives together than we have had separately.” Bloomfield, D., Barnes, T., and Huyse, L., (eds.) (2003), Reconciliation After Violent Conflict. A Handbook, IDEA, Stockholm.
1 “As the experience shows, “about sixty countries lie in the grey zone and see a confused and not coordinated coexistence of sometimes-conflicting policies, projects and procedures. Moreover, this type of situation is the major obstacle to any development policy as it prevents long term planning and appropriate needs identification, together with setting the communities in a state of acute vulnerability: the contrary of that structural stability that is a necessary condition for successful development actions”. Effectiveness of relations between the EU and the developing countries and the impact of reform of the Commission (exchange of views with NGO representatives), European Parliament - Committee on Development and Cooperation - Brussels 19 June 2000.
2 The parameters for conflict analysis are: a) Regional and country analysis; b) Analysis of the roots, origins and legacy of the conflict; c) Overview of the projects and programmes implemented: human resources invested; political and local support for the initiatives, level of participation; d) Level of benefits maximization, and minimization of the conflict’s impact on the reconstruction process. “International Alert has identified the following guiding principles for conflict transformation work […]: primacy of people in transforming conflict, humanitarian concern, human rights and humanitarian laws and principles, respect for gender and cultural diversity, impartiality, independence, accountability, confidentiality, partnership, institutional learning. Such principles should guide the conflict analysis and strategic decisions which need to be made.” And “Conflict Analysis must involve assessing the relative importance of the different conflict factors and their interrelationship.” Nyheim, D., Leonhardt, M., Gaigals, C., (2001), Development in Conflict: A Seven Step Tool for Planners, FEWER, International Alert, Saferworld. The validity of the approach and reports by the International Crisis Group and International Alert for the analysis of the conflicts in Kosovo and Afghanistan has been assumed. For the Mozambique case, the West Africa Network for Peace Building, the Centre for Conflict Research and Accord will be the main sources.
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the local dynamics, were considered as relevant factors for the evolution and solution to the crises.
As experience shows, the outcome of the reconstruction process is affected by several factors: the financial resources made available by donors, the coherence of the long term policies applied and the adoption of methodologies appropriate to the single context.
In the case of Mozambique, considering the process after fifteen years from the peace agreement, the study will start from the analysis of the grey zone and will move further to the results of the reconstruction process. Indeed, this case study will focus on structures and processes which are able to promote an environment favourable to social and economic development3.
1.2.2. Definition of stakeholders
The definition of civil society in each of the selected cases and in the reconciliation process will be followed by an identification of possible stakeholders in each country. In broad terms, a stakeholder can be defined as “those groups, who share a common interest towards the conflict or are affected by it in a similar way.”4 In order to identify them specifically, has been followed the definition adopted by the Commission of the European Communities in the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee. Participation of non-stare actors in the EC development policy5: Regional and national local authorities, NGO’s, community-based organizations and their representative platforms in different sectors, social partners as well as trade unions, employers associations, private sector associations and business organizations, associations of churches and confessional movements, universities, cultural associations, media and association of vulnerable groups. These actors can be local stakeholders or/and development partners.
1.2.3. Areas of investigation
After this, will be analysed the progress of the post-war processes through four main indicators: political and institutional reconstruction, economic reconstruction, social reconstruction and peace and reconciliation processes. Indicators and the areas of potential influence on the post-war, reconstruction and development processes has been identified starting from the assumptions of the Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) Methodology, and from the definition of Peacebuilding of the Utstein Group6.
3 During the implementation of the research, it became clear that the starting assumption of considering the three case studies – Mozambique, Kosovo and Afghanistan – post conflict realities was, for the latter two, misleading. Indeed, the outcomes of the research show that Kosovo can only partially be considered a post conflict reality, and that the situation in Afghanistan is far from being a post conflict one. As a consequence, while the methodology of the research remains valid, the first outcome of the research highlights that one of the assumptions on which the research started has, over the research period, proved to be no longer applicable. We believe this clarification will help the reader gain fuller understanding of this research project.
4 Nyheim, D., Leonhardt, M., Gaigals, C., Op.Cit.
5 COM (2002) 598 final, Brussels 7.11.02.
6 “A number of indicator-based tools have been developed over the last years which aim to assist planning and analysis for decision-makers and practitioners at national and regional level. These tools and frameworks outline a range of political, economic and social indicators which, when combined, serve to present a comprehensive picture of the overall conflict risks in a given context.” Gaigals C. and Leonhardt M. (2001) Conflict Sensitive Approaches to Development, A Review of Practice, Saferworld, International Alert, International Development Research Centre. See also Nyheim, D., Leonhardt, M., Gaigals, C., Op. Cit., Hoffman, M. Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment Methodology, Berghof Research Centre for Constructive Conflict Management, and Evaluation Report 1/2004, Towards a Strategic Framework for Peacebuilding: Getting Their Act Together, Overview of the Joint Utstein Study of Peacebuilding, Utenriksdepartementet, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway.
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As explained above, some of these structures and processes will promote the creation of a peaceful environment7, therefore reducing the possibility of a new violent conflict, while others may create a more favourable environment for the crisis. In each area of potential influence, both conflict and peace-promoting factors at national and local level will be identified, as well as the degree of international support to the peace-building process which involves civil society. Therefore, the four indicators and subsequent areas of influence will be as follows:
Peace process
Grass root dialogue and participatory processes that involve all the concerned parties
Appropriate methods for the resolution of controversies and effectiveness of the reconciliation process
A fair justice system and other pacific mechanisms for the resolution of conflicts Social reconstruction of war-torn communities
Gender issues
Political factionalism
Governance and democratisation
The establishment of good governance and the rule of law
The enforcement of political and civil rights (including free elections, parties, trade unions, etc.)
Civil liberties
Democratisation process Institution building
Corruption, transparency and accountability Freedom of press
Decentralisation process and local authorities’ empowerment Organized civil society and civil society organizations (csos) Consultation with / participation of csos
Reconstruction
Progress in the physical reconstruction
Political commitment of the international community Attention of the international media
International aid and Development programmes Sustainability of the development process
7 According to what stated above, in the case of Mozambique, the focus will be on the development analysis as to identify the appropriate indicators.
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Education Labour market
Security
Threats for the citizens’ security (residual combats, criminality, landmines, demobilised soldiers, circulation of small arms, etc.) and perception of security
Enforcement of national and local police or equivalent, progress of the security sector reform Large numbers of displaced persons and/or refugees
The persistence of humanitarian needs (shelter, food security, W&S, health, etc.) The persistence of human rights abuses
Organized crime
Hostility against the international force, international civil organizations and/or local NGO’s The identification of good practices and lessons learned as well as the analysis of relevant literature and of the data collected during the country visit and through the interviews, will complete this work.
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