South Asia Human Development Sector

Report No. 65

South Asia Human Development Sector

A Study on National University and Affiliated Colleges

in Bangladesh

January 2014

Discussion Paper Series

Public Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure Authorized

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Report No. 65

South Asia Human Development Sector

A Study on National University and Affiliated Colleges in Bangladesh

January 2014

Discussion Paper Series

Discussion Papers are published to communicate the results of the World Bank’s work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript manuscript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to the formally edited texts. Some sources cited in the paper may be informal documents that are not readily available.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The

boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not

imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or

the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.

Contents

Executive Summary ... i

1. Introduction ... 1

1.1. Objective of the Study ... 2

1.2. Methodology ... 2

2. Higher Education in Bangladesh: Universities and Colleges ... 3

2.1. Structure of Higher Education ... 3

2.2. Genesis of National University and Affiliated Colleges in Bangladesh ... 6

2.3. Institutional Arrangements of College Education System ... 7

3. Access and Equity in Higher Education in Bangladesh: How National University and Affiliated Colleges Contribute ... 9

3.1. Where does Bangladesh stand in terms of Access to Higher Education? ... 9

3.2. What is the Share of Colleges that Provide Higher Education in Bangladesh? ... 10

3.3. Who are the Students? ... 11

3.4. Issues for Consideration ... 12

4. Quality and Relevance of Teaching and Learning in Colleges ... 17

4.1. Who are the teachers? ... 17

4.2. What do students learn? ... 20

4.3. How is student performance assessed? ... 22

4.4. How do college graduate perform in the labor market? ... 23

4.5. Issues for consideration... 24

5. Financing and Financial Management in Colleges ... 26

5.1. Higher Education Financing ... 26

5.2. Financing and Financial Management of National University and Affiliated Colleges ... 27

6. Governance and Management of National University and Affiliated Colleges ... 31

6.1. Governance of the National University ... 31

6.2. Governance of colleges ... 32

6.3. Affiliation of Colleges ... 32

6.4. Governing Bodies of Affiliated Colleges ... 33

6.5. Subvention to affiliated Colleges ... 33

6.6. Issues for consideration... 33

7. Policy Options ... 37

Annex 1: Key Data Sources and Data Limitations ... 41

Annex 2: Education System in Bangladesh ... 43

Annex 3: SSC and HSC Equivalent Examinations Graduate Numbers and Pass Rates (2007- 2012) ... 44

Annex 4: Overview of funding procedures in HE in different countries throughout the World . 48

References ... 55

Figures

Figure 1: Population (188+) with Grade 12+ Education in Bangladesh

Figure 2: Tertiary GER – Where Bangladesh Stands in Comparison to World and Neighboring Countries

Figure 3: Average CGPA by Institution Type

Figure 4: Share of population with different level of education by generations Figure 5: Demand and seats available for tertiary education

Figure 6: Access to Higher Education by Generation and Poverty Groups Figure 7: per Student Yearly Institutional Expenses by Type of Colleges Figure 8: Education Financing

Figure 9: National University’s sources of Income 2010/11 Figure 10: National University’s Heads of Expenditure 2010/11

Tables

Table 1: Institutions, Enrollment and Teachers in Higher Education in Bangladesh, 2010 Table 2: College Education System in Bangladesh 2010

Table 3: Tertiary Education Colleges in Bangladesh Number of Teachers and Students by Management and sex, 2010

Table 4: Institutional Matrix of College Education Governance in Bangladesh Table 5: Share of students in each income group by type of institution

Table 6: Population with Grade 12 plus Education in Bangladesh Table 7: Projection Analysis

Table 8 (a): Profile of College Teachers by Category of Colleges Table 8 (b): Resources for Teaching and Learning

Table 9: GoB Allocation to Ministry of Education, Universities and Public Colleges (in Billion Taka)

Table 10: Disbursement of MPO Subvention (In BDT million) Table 11: Description of the Colley Study Sample

Boxes

Box 1: Strategic Plan for Higher education in Bangladesh 2006-2026 Box 2: Examples of Multifaceted and perplexing policy initiatives

Box 3: Raising the Connectivity Capacity of the Higher Education Sector

Acknowledgements

The team benefited significantly from consultations with the representatives from the Ministry of Education, the National University, the University Grants Commission, public and private colleges, the National Academy for Education Management (NAEM), the Nongovernment Teacher Registration and Certification Authority (NTRCA), the Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS), and private sector entrepreneurs. Four background papers for the study were prepared by Salma Akhter and Halima Akhter (Access and Equity), Rabiul Islam and Jahidul Islam (Quality), Salahuddin Aminuzzaman and Mustari Miskat (Governnane), and Omar Al Farooque and Mujibul Kabir (Finance). The findings of the study contributed to the preparation of Skills Development Policy Note of the Bangladesh Education Sector Review 2013.

This report was written by a team composed of Yoko Nagashima and Mokhlesur Rahman (Co- Task Team Leaders), Syed Rashed Al-Zayed Josh, Subrata S. Dhar, Shinsaku Nomura, Muhammad Asahabur Rahman, and Hena Mukherjee.

This work has benefited from the generous financial support of the Education Program

Development Fund. The team is grateful for the overall guidance provided by Amit Dar, and

useful feedback and input from Leonie Siok Yoong Lee, former secondee at the World Bank

from the Government of Singapore, and World Bank colleagues, including Hiroshi Saeki,

Ayesha Vawda, Dilip Parajuli, Syeda Kashfee Ahmed, and Seo Yeon Hong. Data Analysis and

Technical Assistance Limited (DATA) conducted the field work for the College Study Survey

and prepared the data. This report was edited by Michelle Klink. Sandra Alborta assisted in

preparing the report for final publication. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions

expressed in this report are entirely those of the authors.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

B.Ed Bachelor of Education

BISE Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education CCDE Center for Curriculum Development and Education DIA Directorate of Inspection and Audit

DSHE Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education

FY Fiscal Year

GoB Government of Bangladesh HEI Higher Education Institution

HEMIS Higher Education Management Information System HEQEP Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project HSC Higher Secondary Certificate

ICT IDA

Information & Communication Technologies International Development Association

LAN Local Area Network

MoE Ministry of Education

MoF Ministry of Finance

MPO MTBF NAEM NTRCA

Monthly Pay Orders

Medium-Term Budgetary Framework

National Academy for Education Management

Nongovernment Teacher Registration and Certification Authority PSC

PFM

Public Service Commission Public Financial Management REN Research and Education Network SSC

TSR

Secondary School Certificate Teacher-Student Ratio

UGC University Grants Commission

Key Messages

1. This study addresses challenges faced by a major part of the higher education sector in Bangladesh - the colleges. The objectives of the study are to: a) review and analyze the college education system of Bangladesh and b) identify policy options which will guide the government as it prepares a long-term strategy to improve the quality and relevance of higher education. This report is divided into the four key areas ripe for reform: a) access and equity, b) quality and relevance, c) financing, and d) governance.

Access and Equity

2. Bangladesh remains far behind other developed countries in terms of accessing higher education. Nevertheless, the country has witnessed a sharp rise in demand for higher education during the past decade. Affiliated colleges are the largest provider of higher education absorbing the majority of students accessing higher education in Bangladesh (79%). Given that public facilities for higher education expand slowly, private initiatives are absorbing the majority of additional demand. This private provision of education is usually expensive for poor and middle income families.

3. Moreover, the current supply of tertiary education is mostly biased to the urban centers and hence keeps girls from the periphery and the disadvantaged living in the rural areas out of access. Furthermore, there is limited scope for studying science and engineering and the available options for studying these disciplines are even more urban centric and expensive. Consequently, poor and middle income families from the periphery, in most cases, end up either not accessing higher education or accessing courses which have limited market demand. Finally, the supply gap as well as inequality in accessing higher education will widen further in the near future if supply remains at the present level.

Quality and Relevance of Teaching and Learning in Colleges

4. Few college teachers have research or pedagogical training, or qualifications beyond a master’s degree. Undertrained, overworked teachers performing in environments that lack infrastructure and clear promotion tracks negatively impact student performance. Another challenge facing the system is that the college curriculum is centrally developed with scant input from key stakeholders; there is a growing disconnect between what is taught in colleges and what is required by the labor market. Additionally, student performance is assessed primarily through centralized external examinations held annually which, in the past, has caused delays in the academic schedule. Moreover, there is no evidence of systematic monitoring of the performance of the assessment system which makes systemic improvement difficult. Colleges face these and many additional challenges for which strategies need to be devised if they are to deliver quality education relevant to employers and society.

Financing and Financial Management in Colleges

5. Insufficient resources are set aside for instructional quality in both government and

private colleges. Because government college finances are provided and regulated by MoE

via DSHE it is virtually impossible for these colleges to mobilize significant resources on

their own initiative. This study reveals that government college principals operate under a

process that tends to discourage any incentives to save. In contrast to government colleges,

private colleges operate under a system that has greater flexibility. Finally, the current MPO

approval process possesses a number of systemic loopholes.

Governance and Management of National University and Affiliated Colleges 6. This study identified a number of governance practices in colleges which require attention if they are to achieve performance potentials. Serious concerns exist with regard to the internal governance of many affiliated colleges. Existing accountability and monitoring mechanisms are weak and ineffective. Management of the whole sub-sector is severely deficient because of institutional size, complex structure, and existing NU capacity.

Moreover, NU lacks the capability to carry out responsibilities such as academic supervision or provide much-needed direction and professional, technical support. For example, NU does not have a central database or publications on academic activities to support decision- making; yet, it manages nearly four-fifths of the students in the tertiary education system.

Additionally, NU and its affiliated colleges suffer from an image crisis. NU needs transparent governance practices, accountable management, professional monitoring and support, adequate financial support, a shared strategic vision, and a well-formulated quality assurance framework for colleges.

POLICY OPTIONS

7. After taking the above findings into consideration, researchers identified the policy options stated below which fall into five broad areas of reform: A) strengthening the system and service delivery, B) expanding in response to market and future demands, C) improving governance and management of the college subsector, D) strengthening performance through financing methods and college-level financial reforms, and E) improving the quality of affiliated colleges.

A. Strengthening the System and Service Delivery

1. Advance the Government’s vision – fully establish NU Regional Campuses, decentralize delivery of selected services, and delegate management functions.

2. Strengthen capacity of Central NU and Regional Campuses’ core functions.

B. Expanding in Response to Market and Future Demands

3. Develop a strategy for how the system will respond to projected enrollment demand, especially for: a) the rural and disadvantaged/underserved regions, and b) the subject areas that have high market demand (i.e. engineering and technology).

4. Develop a phased expansion plan with incentives and assistance for opening market- relevant courses. The plan should include cost implications developed from market research of enrollment projections.

C. Improving Governance & Management of the College Subsector

5. Clarify roles and responsibilities while balancing agencies’ coordination functions with their domain specializations.

6. Spearhead the development of a medium-term Strategic Plan which includes a vision and modalities to reach the vision’s goals.

7. Increase autonomy for higher performing colleges to spur innovation and strengthen quality of education and management.

8. Overhaul accountability and monitoring mechanisms.

9. Strengthen management capacities through the development of a management information system to improve accountability, transparency, administration, and management.

10. Enhance internet connectivity in individual colleges in order to improve management

and administration as well as to support the modernization of teaching and learning.

D. Strengthening Performance through Financing Methods and College-Level Financial Reforms

11. Increase funding for education in general and higher education sector in particular to at least 1% of GDP by FY2010 to meet the increasing demand for higher education and to improve the quality of public universities and colleges while strengthening the capacity of the sector to improve its efficiency, governance and management.

12. Pilot multiple funding approaches: a) formula, b) performance-based and c) competitive.

13. Establish various student aid financing mechanisms (i.e., scholarship, grants, and other financial aid in the short term as well as student loan schemes to be implemented in the long term).

14. Give more financial autonomy to Government colleges – as a way to encourage fund raising –while implementing strong system of checks and balances and financial auditing and measures to strengthen college-level financial management.

E. Improving the Quality of Affiliated Colleges

15. Develop a phased plan for the college-sector quality assurance framework while sensitizing and assisting individual colleges to set up voluntary quality assurance schemes.

16. Include teacher performance in the comprehensive reform initiative.

17. Allocate additional funds for the development and implementation of training

programs for various levels of staff at NU and affiliated colleges. These training

options may include distance learning or online accreditation courses in addition to

traditional formats.

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Executive Summary

INTRODUCTION

1. A nation’s utilization and creation of knowledge endeavors are globally acknowledged as the driving forces for economic development and competitiveness. Public and private investments in institutions of higher education and research require strengthening in tandem with the development of a regulatory environment that supports national and institutional growth. In recognition of these issues, the Government of Bangladesh’s first Higher Education Strategic Plan (2006-2026) proposed a long-term development plan for the higher education sector, recommending that the plan would need to be cognizant of both universities and the Bangladesh National University-affiliated colleges where the majority of post-secondary graduates are enrolled.

2. The Strategic Plan noted a necessity to expand the sub-sector and identified the many weaknesses -- such as poor quality, weak governance and management practices, limited access, low level of research, weak planning and monitoring capacity, and inadequate funding – that plague the system. The first initiative of the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) is an IDA-supported project - the Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP). The HEQEP focuses on improving the quality and relevance of university programs which are seen as the upper tier of tertiary education in Bangladesh.

But, as the Higher Education Strategic Plan pointed out,

“if the largest plank in the country’s higher education has to attain the prominence it deserves,

3. This study, which is the second activity initiated as a result of the Strategic Plan, addresses the challenges faced by a major part of the higher education sector - the colleges - and surveys the development options available for government policy and action.

4. The two objectives of the college study are to: a) review and analyze the college education system of Bangladesh and b) identify policy options which will guide the Government of Bangladesh as it prepares a long-term strategy to improve the quality and relevance of this large segment of the higher education subsector.

5. The policy options mentioned in the study have been discussed with the relevant stakeholders including National University, representatives from colleges and UGC. The policy options are expected to be incorporated in the presumptive strategic plan for the long-term development of the college sector. It will also inform the government, National University and the institutions as they plan the necessary reforms for revamping this important subsector.

6. The study used multiple methods. Methods included a) literature reviews, b) a sample questionnaire survey of 301 colleges, c) interviews and focus group discussions with key officials, several departments, and students from 15 public and five private universities, d) case studies, e) consultations with stakeholder groups, and f) analysis of available data. The survey results provided data and information on the major aspects of the system which generally suffers from a scarcity of published data in the public domain. Survey findings provided the basis for case studies which were carried out by a team of consultants in institutions located in different regions of the country

. The case studies aimed to

1 A brief description of the data sources is given in Annex 1.

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gain an in-depth understanding of the four areas that strongly impact the higher education systems: (i) access and equity, (ii) quality and relevance, (iii) financing, and (iv) governance.

7. The higher education system in Bangladesh is highly complex. There are four types of higher education institutions

a) competitive public (29) and private universities (51); b) a vast number of government (239) and non-government colleges (1251) affiliated with the National University; c) one thousand two hundred fifteen (1215) affiliated with the Islamic University of which only three are public institutions; and d) various types of professional colleges, institutions and madrasas.

8. NU is the largest higher education institution in the country and is responsible for academic control of all affiliated colleges. Seventy-nine percent of tertiary education students are enrolled in NU’s 1,490 affiliated colleges. NU’s responsibilities include framing curricula, prescribing academic programs, providing training, organizing admissions, conducting examinations and conferring degrees. It is also mandated to improve the quality of teaching-learning and strengthen academic management in colleges.

9. The majority of existing public colleges were originally established as private institutions. In order to make the institution functional and to ensure sustainability, these private colleges underwent an elaborate procedure of “affiliation” set out in the National University Act of 1992.

10. The college sector is governed by complex institutional arrangements that involve multiple entities and government agencies. The NU is the principal entity designated to look after college education beyond higher secondary level. Other entities that have overlapping responsibilities for governing the college sector include various agencies under the Ministry of Education (MoE). Only the MoE, however, has the authority to initiate the process of formulating acts,

ordinances and rules concerning institutional governance of the subsector. Policy initiatives, taken at the level of subordinate entities such as UGC, NU, DSHE and the Education Boards, feed into the more formal policy-making processes at the Ministry of Education and are often uncoordinated.

11. Colleges can be categorized into three types of financial relationships with the government:

(a) Government colleges; (b) Private colleges with MPO; and (c) Private colleges without MPO. Of these three groups, the third group has no financial relation with government and is similar to private HEIs as independent and self-sufficient in managing their finance. Most of them are high performing colleges located in urban areas such as City College, Dhaka Commerce College etc.

MAIN FINDINGS AND KEY CHALLENGES FACING THE SYSTEM

12. The main findings and key challenges facing higher education in Bangladesh are: (i) access and equity, (ii) quality and relevance, (iii) financing, and (iv) governance.

Access and Equity

13. Bangladesh remains far behind other developed countries with respect to the percentage of the population accessing higher education. Nevertheless, the country has witnessed a sharp rise in demand for higher education during the past decade. In 1990, the share of population aged 18 years and above accessing higher education was below 3 percent. Currently, only 4.7% the population aged 18 years and above in Bangladesh has ever accessed any education above grade 12.

14. Affiliated colleges are the largest provider of higher education sector. Seventy-nine per cent (79%) of students accessing higher education in Bangladesh attend affiliated colleges.

2 An act, however, has to be passed by Parliament although it can be initiated by the Ministry.

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15. The cost of education has become out of reach for poor- and middle-income households.

Given that public facilities for higher education expand slowly, private initiatives are absorbing the majority of additional demand. This private provision of education is usually expensive for poor and middle-income families. The survey data show that private universities and the renowned private colleges in the metropolitan areas are the most expensive tertiary level institutions. The prohibitively high fee levels have not encouraged better access or equity. While public universities provide less expensive education compared to private ones with regard to tuition, fees, and other charges, the majority of their students are not from disadvantaged families.

16. The current supply of tertiary education is mostly biased to the urban centers and hence keeps girls from the periphery and the disadvantaged living in the rural areas out of access. More than 65% of the people live in rural Bangladesh, while more than 60% of tertiary education seats are available in the urban or semi urban regions. Almost every upazila in Bangladesh has at least one college, either public or private or both and some have more than two colleges. However, enrollment capacity in these colleges is generally small, making it necessary for students to travel to other towns. The results of the HIES 2010 study further show that marital status coupled with poverty drastically reduces opportunities for girl students to continue their education. Indigenous communities lagging behind in access to education have low school-level pass rates leading to very low college-level enrollment.

17. There is limited scope for studying science and engineering. In colleges as a whole, 65% of the seats are for humanities and business studies while science education is rarely available in the rural colleges. Moreover, the available options for studying science and engineering are urban centric and expensive. Consequently, poor and middle income families from the periphery, in most cases, end up either not accessing higher education or accessing courses which have limited market demand.

18. The supply gap as well as inequality in accessing higher education will widen in the near future if supply is not increased. The demand projection shows a sharp increase throughout the next decade and by 2030, 65% more students will try to gain admission to tertiary level institutions. In order for this demand to be absorbed, the private sector must supplement the university expansion planned by the government.

Quality and Relevance of Teaching and Learning in Colleges

19. There are 54,503 college teachers teaching at Higher Secondary through master’s degree levels. Little more than 20% of these teachers are female and only 4% have qualifications higher than a masters (M Phil or PhD). About 82% of the teachers are employed in the private colleges, half of whom receive their salary and allowances from the government through MPO subventions. The overall average Teacher-Student Ratio (TSR) is 1:35 with wide variations at different locations and academic programs.

The ratio of students to teachers is much higher in the large institutions especially in urban and metropolitan areas.

20. Few teachers – in the public or private college arena – have research or pedagogical training, or qualifications beyond a master’s degree. The very small proportion (4%) possessing doctoral level or M.Phil. degrees, teach largely in colleges with good physical infrastructure, academic and administrative settings. Lack of opportunities for a planned system of training and upgrading contribute to the underperformance of staff and the inability to attract better qualified staff to rural

3 In the Strategic Plan for Higher Education 2006-2026, data are presented which suggest that if 15% of high school graduates pursue higher education in 2026, at least 28 new universities will have to be established in the country.

MoE’s MTBF from FY 2012/13 to 2016/17 (five years) has set the target of establishing four new public universities each year with five in the terminal year of 2016/17.

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colleges. Students participating in the sample survey rated the teaching skills of academic staff from

‘poor’ to ‘average’.

21. Poor teacher performance impacts student performance. The variety of reasons for poor teacher performance include: Teachers tasked with non-teaching administrative and clerical chores, poor or insufficient training, poor infrastructure, teacher focus on private tuition classes and low level of motivation resulting from unattractive salary packages and unclear or non-existent career paths. The general picture suggests a sub-sector that lacks professional vibrancy; rather it suggests a stagnant group of teachers who are locked into secure jobs and see little reason to change their ways.

22. The college curriculum is centrally developed with scant input from key stakeholders while curriculum review and renewal does not occur in a regular, systematic manner. More importantly, there is a growing disconnect between what is taught in colleges and what is required by the labor market.

Key emerging knowledge and skill areas such as gender studies, disaster management, information technology and computer applications rarely appear in college curricula. Furthermore, access to relevant and updated learning resources and logistical support in NU colleges is variable with rural colleges being worse off. With the growing number of Honors programs, poor access to resources and the limited number of postgraduate programs continue to plague the system.

23. Student performance is assessed primarily through centralized external examinations held annually. This is a huge undertaking where, in a single year, NU has the task of organizing 97 examinations in 382 subjects and 1,950 courses. The questions are set by public university teachers engaged by NU with examinations held on college premises. Interviews of college teachers and students identified perceptions that university teachers are not well-versed in the NU curriculum, which poses problems for question-setting as well as marking of answer scripts. Examiners engaged for external evaluation are mainly senior teachers selected from public universities. Sometimes college teachers are selected as examiners for scripts from colleges other than their own. Examiners are often unable to meet agreed deadlines for completion of the marking process, creating delays in the publication of examination results. This leads to a time-lag or ‘session jam’, a phenomenon which contributes greatly to wastage of resources and increasing unit costs. A positive step has been NU’s introduction and implementation of online application facilities for admission from 2010 which in accelerating the admission process, has potential for stopping delays in the academic schedule.

24. There is no evidence of systematic monitoring of the performance of the assessment system which makes systemic improvement difficult. The logistics of numbers is an enormous challenge but given the examination’s high stakes, MoU, DSHE, UGC and NU need to mount a public review of the assessment system. Since student examination fees constitute a major proportion of NU revenue (60%), NU’s clients - students – should expect to enjoy a more efficient and effective process where examination organizers ensure the suitability of markers enlisted, the timeframe for examinations, marking of scripts and announcement of results. Part of the fees income could be utilized for training of examiners, as well as increasing the knowledge and skills of those who set examinations. Technical improvement may go some way to deal with allegations regarding administrative mismanagement.

25. Colleges face many challenges for which strategies need to be devised if they are to deliver

quality education relevant to employers and society. These need to be resolved by national authorities

and agencies and include primarily: (i) recruiting and deploying appropriately qualified college teachers,

particularly in private colleges; (ii) investment in post-recruitment training and support for public and

private colleges; (iii) provision of and equitable access to teaching-learning resources; (iv) establishment

of a strong monitoring and professional support mechanism; and (v) a comprehensive review of NU’s

organization of national examinations and assessment practices, including both content and processes.

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Financing and Financial Management in Colleges

26. Bangladesh has one of the lowest GDP allocations for education in general and in higher education in particular as compared to some other developing countries. Overall allocation for education has remained almost flat between 2% - 3% of GDP between 2001 and 2009 with around 0.12% on higher education. Considering the significant increase in the demand for tertiary education, especially for colleges in recent years, and a great need to improve the quality of government colleges, the current funding level is inadequate.

27. Insufficient resources are set aside for instructional quality for both government and private colleges. NU income sources are largely based on the various categories of fees charged to students and institutions. The bulk of expenditure is for salaries and examination-related expenses while expenditures for research, curriculum development and other academic work were 3% or less.

28. Government college finances are provided and regulated by MoE via DSHE. While NU provides curriculum and academic support, and intermittent training of academic/teaching staff, MoE/DSHE gives financial support for both recurrent and development expenditures of colleges. Budgets submitted by government colleges are approved on the basis of staffs and precedence, not per capita averages by fields of study. Resource allocation is linked to the development and non-development funding requirements drafted by the Ministry under MTBF priorities.

29. Government colleges are unable to mobilize significant resources on their own initiative.

Unlike autonomous public universities, government colleges cannot raise funds from sale of goods and services, donation and/or other fund raising activities due to stringent government regulations. In fact, the lion’s share of income for government colleges comes from government budget allocations while 20%

comes from student tuition and fees. Student fees in public colleges are very low and a majority of them go to National University.

30. Government college principals operate under a process that tends to discourage any incentives to save. College principles are not allowed to transfer funds across categories, are unable to raise funds, and have to return any savings to the exchequer – a process that sets the stage for inefficient resource management.

31. In contrast to government colleges, private colleges operate under a system that has greater flexibility. Private MPO listed colleges are autonomous with respect to financial management providing a high level of independence in internal administration, fund raising and speedier decision making.

Government MPO grants constitute about 20% of income for private colleges while student tuition fees constitute more than 80% of total income. Government subventions finance 100% of the basic salary of the approved teaching (significant numbers are not covered) and support staff posts in recognized private colleges.

32. The current MPO approval process possesses a number of systemic loopholes. Discrepancies

within the system may go by unheeded as better coordination among main players is needed. Information

gaps may often lead to misuse of MPO subventions. Unfortunately, the structure allows for a chain of

corruption; a minimal proportion (around 2%) of the colleges tends to have suspensions of MPOs due to

poor academic performance.

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Governance and Management of National University and Affiliated Colleges

33. The main governance functions of the National University – vis-à-vis the affiliated colleges – are related to affiliation, admission, examinations, curriculum management and teacher recruitment and development. As a whole, the National University system accounts for roughly 80 percent of the whole tertiary sector of the country.

34. As a public university, the governance structure and system of NU revolves around Vice Chancellor. The Vice Chancellor is the chief executive, Pro-Vice Chancellor, the Senate, the Syndicate, the Academic Council, the Finance Committee and the Planning and Development Committee. The Vice- Chancellor is empowered to appoint teachers (excepting professors), officers and employees on a temporary basis ordinarily for a period of not more than six months and s/he must inform the Syndicate about such appointments.

35. Public colleges are administered through the government service rules while affiliated private colleges are governed by their Governing Bodies. Teachers are recruited through Public Service Commission and their salaries follow the government salary scale. Administrative decisions are mostly taken by the Government through the Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education (DSHE) under the MoE. In private colleges, teacher recruitment committees have representation from NU and DSHE and teachers are recruited from a pool that is pre- certified by the Nongovernment Teacher Registration and Certification Authority (NTRCA).

36. Affiliation eligibility is subject to: a) satisfying certain conditions and b) approval of the Syndicate. These conditions include: a) a Governing Body; b) strength and qualifications of teaching staff; c) suitable

facilities; d) financial resources to provide for continued maintenance; e) absence of any other affiliated college within a radius of eight kilometers except in the metropolitan, industrial and municipal areas, and f) function for at least three years and receive salary subvention for teachers from the Government. 6

37. Teachers experience uncertainty when colleges are expected to pay teachers from their own tuition and other income, unless they work in big urban colleges where tuition and other income of the colleges are guaranteed. While the National University sets the requirements for affiliation regarding the number of teachers required in each subject for colleges seeking affiliation, it does not have the responsibility to provide financial support to the colleges once affiliated

.

38. The study identified a number of governance practices in colleges which require attention if they are to achieve their performance potentials. These include: (i) the structure which makes government colleges replicas of government entities preventing them from enjoying some working/

functional autonomy; (ii) the acute shortage of teachers due to laborious and inefficient teacher recruitment practices; (iii) issues regarding the internal governance of many affiliated private colleges;

(iv) adverse effects of student politics on college governance; (v) weak accountability and monitoring mechanism; and (vi) overall lack of strategic vision and planning at affiliated colleges.

4 This power, in the past, allegedly was the source of many malpractices. The University is still suffering from the effect of irregularities in appointments.

5 Other than the space, there is no such given criterion which qualifies “suitable”.

6 National University Amended Regulations on Affiliation, 2012, approved by Syndicate on June 19, 2010.

7 The private colleges are supposed to be financially self-sufficient but most of them cannot charge high tuition fee and are dependent on MPO to remain financially viable.

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39. Serious concerns exist with regard to the internal governance of many affiliated colleges.

The case studies identified the functioning of Governing Bodies and the impact of politically influential persons on the management of colleges including the recruitment of teachers as areas of concern. Equally adverse is the effect of student politics on college governance, particularly in terms of administration of examinations and actual number of class days.

40. Existing accountability and monitoring mechanisms are weak and ineffective. given the size and complex structure of affiliated colleges and the current capacity of the NU. Management of the whole sub-sector is severely deficient because of institutional size, complex structure, and existing NU capacity. NU lacks capability to carry out responsibilities such as academic supervision or provide much- needed direction and professional, technical support. NU has taken the initiative to delegate its activities to six regional offices. However, staff deployment and capacity building for these regional offices have hindered implementation progress, laying the ground for weak management. Moreover a lack of consultative processes in the decision-making process with its chief clients, the affiliated colleges, has created an unhealthy distance between central management and the colleges.

41. NU and its affiliated colleges suffer from an image crisis. The recent spell of employees’ strike at NU, annulment of the appointment of some 1100 employees on the ground of anomalies in employment, blatant political considerations in many administrative decisions and numerous problems of irregularities of various kinds at the colleges have created an image crisis for the National University system. Moreover, college education is always considered second grade, in the court of public opinion, next to university education at tertiary level.

42. NU needs transparent governance practices, accountable management, professional monitoring and support, a shared strategic vision and a well-formulated quality assurance framework for colleges, with adequate financial support.

43. NU does not have a central database, or published annual report, to support decision- making; yet, it manages nearly four-fifths of the students in the tertiary education system. Data on examinations, admission, affiliation/de-affiliation, curricula are all to be found at different locations.

POLICY OPTIONS

44. The National University and its 1,490 public and private colleges requires a phased multidimensional and multilayered policy development approach to chart out a strategic path for improving the coordination among the key players – MoE, NU, UGC, DSHE and representatives of public and private colleges.

45. The policy options fall into five broad areas of reform: A) strengthening the system and service delivery, B) expanding in response to market and future demands, C) improving governance and management of the college subsector, D) strengthening performance through financing reforms, and E) improving the quality of affiliated colleges.

A. Strengthening the System and Service Delivery

1. Advance the Government’s vision – fully establish NU Regional Campuses, decentralize delivery of selected services, and delegate management functions.

2. Strengthen capacity of Central NU and Regional Campuses’ core functions.

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B. Expanding in Response to Market and Future Demands

3. Develop a strategy for how the system will respond to projected enrollment demand, especially for:

a) the rural and disadvantaged/underserved regions, and b) the subject areas that have high market demand (i.e. engineering and technology).

4. Develop a phased expansion plan with incentives and assistance for opening market-relevant courses. The plan should include cost implications developed from market research of enrollment projections.

C. Improving Governance & Management of the College Subsector

5. Clarify roles and responsibilities while balancing agencies’ coordination functions with their domain specializations.

6. Spearhead the development of a medium-term Strategic Plan which includes a vision and modalities to reach the vision’s goals.

7. Increase autonomy for higher performing colleges to spur innovation and strengthen quality of education and management.

8. Overhaul accountability and monitoring mechanisms.

9. Strengthen management capacities through the development of a management information system to improve accountability, transparency, administration, and management.

10. Enhance internet connectivity in individual colleges in order to improve management and administration as well as to support the modernization of teaching and learning.

D. Strengthening Performance through New Financing Methods and College-Level Financial Reforms

11. Increase funding for education in general and higher education sector in particular to at least 1% of GDP by FY2015 to meet the increasing demand for higher education and to improve the quality of public universities and colleges while strengthening the capacity of the sector to improve its efficiency, governance and management.

12. Pilot multiple funding approaches: a) formula, b) performance-based and c) competitive.

13. Establish short- and long-term student aid financing mechanisms (i.e., scholarship, grants, and other financial aid as well as a student loan scheme to be implemented in the long-term) to increase equity and access.

14. Give more financial autonomy to Government colleges – as a way to encourage fund raising –while implementing strong system of checks and balances and financial auditing and measures to strengthen college-level financial management.

E. Improving the Quality of Affiliated Colleges

15. Develop a phased plan for the college-sector quality assurance framework while sensitizing and assisting individual colleges to set up voluntary quality assurance schemes.

16. Include teacher performance in the comprehensive reform initiative.

17. Allocate additional funds for the development and implementation of training programs for various

levels of staff at NU and affiliated colleges. These training options may include distance learning or

online accreditation courses in addition to traditional formats.

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1. Introduction

1. In the contemporary world, knowledge has become the main driving force for economic development and competitiveness for the nations and university is the institution where new knowledge is created. It is now widely agreed that knowledge has become the single most important catalyst for sustained economic growth. Industrialized and so-called developed countries had identified this fact much earlier. Developing countries took time to react to the fact, mostly because of the narrow economic analysis that showed that investment in higher education brings meager returns compared to investment in primary and secondary education. As a result, developing countries which are weakly connected to the rapidly emerging global knowledge systems finding themselves increasingly in at a disadvantage. Moreover, inequality within the country rises as some individuals and groups use their education to access high standard knowledge that makes them superior compared to those who cannot access the new wealth – knowledge (The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, World Bank 2000).

2. The critical importance of tertiary education for achieving rapid and higher rate of growth has been recognized by the government of Bangladesh and it has initiated efforts to strengthen its higher education system. In the context, the Government has developed a long term strategic plan for higher education: 2006-2026 (see Box 1). IDA supported the drafting of the strategic plan and is currently supporting the Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP) (2009-2015) which targets improvement of quality of education in universities, establish a high performance REN and strengthen their institutional capacity including the University Grants Commission of Bangladesh.

Box 1: Strategic Plan for Higher education in Bangladesh 2006-2026

The Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh was prepared under the leadership of and active initiative of the Honorable Minister of Education. A Strategic Planning Committee (SPC) with 17 representatives of different key stakeholders developed an overall vision and recommended options for developing a strategic direction and intervention packages. Six expert groups composed of eminent scholars, academics and researchers drafted following sections of the Strategic Plan: (i) Vision, Size and Shape; (ii) Quality; (iii) Governance and Management; (iv) Future Funding; (v) Research; and (vi) Information Communication Technology. The recommendations were then discussed at the divisional headquarters and the opinions of different stakeholders were incorporated in the Plan, before reviewed by an International Advisory Group.

Some of the key recommendations are:

•

University sector should be expanded to accommodate the increased demands of high school graduates and emphasis should be given on production of skilled manpower in the selected fields such as agriculture, bio-technology, livestock and fisheries, textile eng;

•

Public funds should be increased in order to increase access and improve quality while exploring other sources of funds;

•

Accountability and institutional autonomy should be redefined; and

•

Accreditation Council for public and private universities should be set up to ensure quality education in higher education.

Source: Strategic Plan for Higher education in Bangladesh 2006-2026, UGC

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3. National University and its affiliated colleges, however, are not part of the ongoing project in view of the fact that its management structure, institutional set up and the development needs are quite different from the universities. The National University college system is a complex and unknown universe of nearly fifteen hundred institutions of varying size and character and are spread all over the country. Its unique features demand a separate approach to understand its complicated nature and tackle its development challenges. This study, therefore, is a first attempt towards that difficult endeavor.

Absence of reliable data and information on this sub-sector is a major impediment for drawing a clear picture and it is expected that this study would provide a preliminary base for further enquiries and lead to the preparation of a development project, paving the way for international funding assistance in future, if it is sought by the government.

1.1. Objective of the Study

4. The overall objective of the college study is to (i) review and analyze the college education system of Bangladesh; (ii) indicate key policy options; (iii) propose an action matrix for its development; and (ii) provide support to the Government of Bangladesh as it prepares a long-term strategy for improving quality and relevance of this large segment of the higher education subsector. The policy options mentioned in the study have been discussed with the relevant stakeholders and expected to be incorporated into the presumptive strategic plan for the long term development of college sector. It will also inform the government, National University and the institutions as they look into the necessary reforms for revamping this important subsector.

5. It should be clarified at the outset that while the colleges in Bangladesh also offer higher secondary education, this study covers only those colleges, that offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees.

6. The study presents an in-depth analysis of the four main areas of college education that broadly makes up the system. The report starts with a brief description of the higher education sector of Bangladesh, followed by (i) access and equity; (ii) quality and relevance of curriculum and teaching; (iii) financing and (vi) structure and governance. Although laid out sequentially in that order these are not mutually exclusive subjects but are dependent variables that work together to keep the institution functioning. Chapter 7 is a separate section presenting the recommendations and policy options.

1.2. Methodology

7. The methodology for the study included relevant literature review, data and information on the major aspects of the system collected through a sample survey of 301 colleges, interviews and focus group discussions with key officials, consultations with stakeholder groups and use of available data on higher education and colleges from the concerned institutions (see Annex 1 for key data sources). In addition several departments and students of 15 public and five private universities were also surveyed and interviewed for making a comparison with college education system. Several rounds of the Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES), which is a household based nationally representative survey conducted by Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) every five years, are also used.

Findings and analyses of the sample survey data provided the basis for case studies carried out by a team of consultants in institutions located at different regions of the country

.

8 A brief description of the data sources is given in the Annex 1.

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2. Higher Education in Bangladesh: Universities and Colleges

8. Education in Bangladesh has three major stages: a) primary, b) secondary and c) higher education. Primary education is a five-year cycle while secondary lasts seven years with three sub-stages:

a) three years of junior secondary, b) two years of secondary and c) two years of higher secondary. The entry age for primary is six years. The junior, secondary and higher secondary stages are for age groups 11-13, 14-15 and 16-17 years, respectively. Higher secondary is followed by undergraduate level higher education in general, technical, engineering, agriculture, and business studies while medical streams require 5-6 years to obtain four years of undergraduate degree (details in Annex 2).

2.1. Structure of Higher Education

9. The higher education system in Bangladesh is complex. Currently two parallel systems of higher education exist in Bangladesh: (i) highly competitive universities in the public and private sectors and (ii) a vast number of government and non-government colleges affiliated with the National University. In addition, there are various types of professional colleges, institutions, and madrasas that also provide tertiary level education.

10. The main difference between the colleges and universities is in the institutional and academic management structures. While universities enjoy considerable freedom in terms of institutional and academic affairs, and management, the public colleges function as typical government organizations bound with rigid administrative and financial regulations that are common to all government offices and are sternly governed by the central authority in Dhaka. The private colleges, however, possess some administrative autonomy compared to government colleges though they still have to follow government financial management rules.

11. Another major difference between colleges and universities relates to the qualification and skill levels of teachers. In general, university faculties possess much higher qualifications while the public college teachers, who have lower qualifications, are recruited as public servants by the Public Service Commission (PSC). Private colleges recruit graduates certified by the National Teachers Registration and Certification Authority (NTRCA). The faculties of universities do not normally take NTRCA examination and apply for jobs in private colleges because of unattractive salary and lack of other benefits.

12. The twenty-nine public universities in Bangladesh include ‘general’ or comprehensive universities which offer a range of disciplines. Some of these universities focus on single professions such as medicine and engineering or are linked with specific industries such as leather, ceramics or textile. Additionally, one university has been established for armed forces professional education and training to army, navy and air force officers. One university provides distance education in a range of subjects and academic programs from secondary to the master’s level. All public universities offer M Phil and PhD programs.

13. The overwhelming majority of the 51 private universities can be included in the

‘comprehensive’ type mentioned above. In response to market demands, most of them started with

business studies programs and later expanded to include computer science and engineering. A few offer

programs in agriculture, medicine, engineering, electronics, textile technology, development studies, fine

and performing arts and fashion designing. None of the private universities have M Phil and PhD

programs.

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14. The colleges affiliated with National University offer bachelor pass courses (three-year degree courses), bachelor honors courses (four-year degree courses) and master’s programs in subjects covered by the general universities and in some technical subjects. Additionally, there are 1,215 graduate and master’s degree equivalent Islamic religious education institutions provided by Madrasah and affiliated with the Islamic University. Among these only three are in public sector.

15. Degrees in higher education, excluding medical and engineering, are given in a three-year pass course or a four-year honors course for the bachelor’s degree graduates, followed by a two- year master’s course for pass graduates and one-year master’s course for honors graduates. Three year pass courses are only offered by the affiliated colleges

. To earn a bachelor’s degree in medical and engineering subjects the completion of a four-year program is required. Master’s program in engineering is of one and half years’ duration and in medical sciences it varies from three to five years in different disciplines. One public university

only enrolls students who graduated from the polytechnic institutes.

16. The table 1 below shows the number of institutions, enrollment and teachers in the sector in 2010.

Table 1: Institutions, Enrollment and Teachers in Higher Education in Bangladesh, 2010 Institution Number of

Institutions

Number of Students % of Girls

Number of Teachers % of women

% of Total Students

Total Girls Total Women

Public university*

29 179,097 50,519 28.20 9545 1808 18.94 7.36

Private university

51 220,752 54,740 24.79 9684 1904 19.66 9.08

Total universities

80 399,849 105,259 26.32 19,229 3712 19.30 16.44

National University Public

college

239 881,015 352,516 40.00 9708 2256 23.23 36.24

Private college

1251 1,044,515 479,634 45.91 44,795 8975 20.03 42.97 Total

colleges

1490 1,925,530 835,150 43.37 54,503 11,231 20.6 79.21

Bangladesh Open University

105,349* 4.33

Total Higher Education

2,430,728 940,409 40.44 73,732 14,943 20.26 100.00

* Only in graduate programs.

Source: University Grants Commission of Bangladesh (UGC), Annual Report, 2011; Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information & Statistics (BANBEIS), Bangladesh Education Statistics, 2011.

9 Madrasah education is not covered in this study.

10 Some specialized courses are not provided by colleges such as pharmacy, micro-biology, applied subjects such as, applied statistics, applied chemistry, etc.

11 Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET) is located 30 km north of Dhaka city.

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17. The NU is the largest higher education institution in the country, several times larger than all the public and private universities combined in terms of enrollment. As evident from table 1, 79% of the tertiary education students are enrolled in 1,490 colleges affiliated with the National University.

18. The overwhelming share of colleges providing higher education underscores the enormous and important contribution they make to the sector. The total number of graduates from the 80 universities, 1,490 colleges and BOU in 2010 was 241,280.

Of these, the share of NU and BOU was 195,725, i.e., 81%.

Table 2: College Education System in Bangladesh 2010

Year Management Schools &

Colleges (up to HSC level)

Degree (Pass) Colleges

Honors Colleges

Master’s Colleges

All Colleges Only Tertiary Education

Colleges

2010 Tota

l

Girls Total Girls Total Girls Total Girls Total Girls Total Girls

Public 17 10 117 28 58 17 64 12 256 67 239 57

Private 1817 322 1153 188 68 18 30 7 3068 535 1251 213

Total 1834 332 1270 216 126 35 94 19 3324 602 1490 270

Source: Bangladesh Education Statistics 2010, August 2011, BANBEIS

19. Despite the government’s stated policy for detaching the secondary education section from the colleges providing higher education in phases, most of the colleges still have higher secondary section within the institutions. This was a legacy from the British colonial period in the 19

century when higher secondary education providing institutions were named as colleges which later added graduate programs but continued to keep the higher secondary part within its institutional set up. It adds complexity to the governance structure

. However, these institutions are reluctant to remove the secondary education section apprehending financial loss because enrollment in higher secondary classes is escalating rapidly over the last several years as a result of increased pass rates of secondary school final examination.

20. Only 126 among 1490 institutions offer bachelor honors programs. Table 3 shows the number of teachers and students by management, sex and the teacher-student ratio in these colleges.

12 UGC Annual Report, 2011

13 Secondary education is looked after by the 10 education boards in three streams of education, e. g., general, technical and madrasah.. While the education boards handle the examinations of the higher secondary part, National University is in charge of governance, academic programs, admission, curriculum and examination of tertiary level.

Despite of the existing regulation issued by secondary education boards to have separate governing body for the HSC colleges, most colleges with HSC section set up a single governing body which functions under the NU regulations. In such governing boards two representatives from DSHE and Secondary Education Boards respectively are included to take care of the management issues of the HSC section.

14 Pass rates in both SSC and HSC examinations have increased gradually over the past five years.

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Table 3: Tertiary Education Colleges in Bangladesh Number of Teachers and Students by Management and sex, 2010

Type of College

Management Number 0f Colleges

Teachers Students Teacher

per College

Student per College

Teacher -Student

Ratio Total Female % Total Girls %

Degree (Pass)

Private 1153 40151 7509 18.7 855859 403272 47.12 35 742 1:21

Public 117 2400 384 16 147155 77098 52.39 21 1258 1:61

Degree (Honors)

Private 68 2718 812 29.87 102170 39925 39.08 40 1503 1:38

Public 58 2317 499 21.54 234533 98012 41.79 40 4044 1:101

Masters Private 30 1926 635 32.97 86486 36437 42.13 64 2883 1:45

Public 64 4991 1373 27.51 499327 177406 35.53 78 7802 1:100

Total 1490 54503 11212 20.57 1925530 832150 43.21 Average TSR 1:35 Source: Bangladesh Education Statistics 2010, BANBEIS

2.2. Genesis of National University and Affiliated Colleges in Bangladesh

21. The National University (NU) was established in 1992 under an Act of Parliament taking over affiliating functions of the universities of Dhaka, Rajshahi and Chittagong with features distinct from those of the traditional universities of the country as an affiliating university

. The NU is responsible for academic control of all the affiliated colleges

offering traditional Bachelors courses (known as Pass courses), and Honors and Master’s courses except the colleges for agriculture, engineering and medicine. The university is also responsible for conducting Bachelors and Master’s examinations. NU’s responsibilities include framing of curricula, prescribing academic programs, providing training, organizing admission, conducting examinations and conferring degrees. It is also mandated to improve the quality of teaching-learning and strengthen academic management in colleges.

Lately, admission to Honors courses in all colleges, public and private, has been centralized under the NU to systematize admission, bringing it under a centralized student data base, and to ward off undue local influences in admission.

22. The NU is expected to play the most significant role in providing opportunities of higher education to the students living especially in rural and semi-urban areas. From 2010 NU has established six regional centers with a view to decentralize some of its functions. However these regional centers are yet to fully functional. Currently NU has a total of 714 staff.

23. Majority of the present public colleges were established originally as private institutions. In order to make the institution functional and to ensure sustainability, these private colleges underwent an elaborate procedure of “affiliation” set out in the National University Act of 1992. When an institution established through private initiative becomes affiliated to the National University by fulfilling the criteria, it can function legally as a college. Over the years, many of these private colleges were brought under state’s jurisdiction by specific government orders, generally known as “nationalization”.

15 The NU is different from other public universities because it is a non-teaching institution. NU only develops the curricula and holds examinations but does not provide any direct assistance in carrying out of the academic programs by the colleges.

16 As per the National University Act "affiliated college" means any Graduate, Honors and Post Graduate degree college recognized by, and affiliated to the University in accordance with the provisions of the Act, the Statutes and the Regulations; while "constituent college" means any college recognized as such by the University in accordance with the provisions of this Act, the Statutes and the University Regulations;