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S C I E N C E AND
LAW AS CONFLICT-RESOLVING INSTITUTIONS - i n f o r m a l i t y a n d d i s c r e t i o n Tn t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o fp o l i c y a u t h o r i t y
B r i a n Wynne
November 1 9 8 3 WP-83-116
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e ENVRISK ' 8 3 C o n f e r e n c e S a n M i n i a t o , I t a l y , J u n e 1 9 8 3
M o r k i n g Papers are interim reports on work of the
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and have received only limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily repre- sent those of the Institute or of its National Member Organizations.
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
I I N T R O D U C T I O N
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Convergence and c o n f u s i o n"Without d o u b t o n e of t h e o l d e s t n o t i o n s of Western C i v i l i z a t i o n was t h a t j u s t a s e a r t h l y i m p e r i a l l a w g i v e r s e n a c t e d codes of p o s i t i v e law t o be obeyed by men, s o a l s o t h e c e l e s t i a l and supreme r a t i o n a l c r e a t o r d e i t y had l a i d down a s e r i e s of laws which must be obeyed by m i n e r a l s , c r y s t a l s , p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , and t h e s t a r s i n t h e i r c o u r s e s . I I ( ~ )
I n an e s s a y from which t h e above q u o t a t i o n i s t a k e n , J o s e p h Needham h a s shown how e v e n t o h i s b r e a d t h o f l e a r n i n g , t h e h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s of
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s c i e n c e and law a r e t a n g l e d and o b s c u r e . The t e r m s , " n a t u r a l law" and " p o s i t i v i s m " a r e common c u r r e n c y i n b o t h f i e l d s , i n d i c a t i n g a s does Needham, some i m p o r t a n t c o n f l u e n c e and i n t e r a c t i o n o n t h e p a s t
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i n d e e d law h a s m o d e l l e d i t s e l f a s 'moral s c i e n c e 1 . Y e t j u s t a s t h e h i s t o r i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e o b s c u r e , s o t o o a r e i t s contemporary o n e s . As o n e academic l a w y e r r a t h e r c o l o u r f u l l y p u t i t :"The a n v i l of t h e law h a s always r e s o u n d e d t o t h e s t r i k i n g i r o n of s c i e n c e . Some tough m e t a l h a s b e e n b e a t e n o u t t h e r e , sometimes i n t o c u r i o u s s h a p e s , and few members o f t h e p o p u l a c e c a n h a v e f a i l e d t o h e a r t h e r e v e r b e r a t i n g blows o r t o s e e t h e c a s c a d i n g s p a r k s which f l y from t h o s e i m p a c t s . D e s p i t e a l l t h i s , t h e r e i s a m i s t of u n c e r t a i n t y , an o b s c u r a t i o n o f t e r m s , a l a c k o f s h a r p d e f i n i t i o n which t e n d t o i n v e s t v i t a l a s p e c t s o f l a w - s c i e n c e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h a c u r i o u s m y s t e r y . I I ( ~ )
T h i s o b s c u r i t y i s m a i n l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e room f o r d e t a c h e d a n a l y s i s and d i s c u s s i o n h a s b e e n l a r g e l y f i l l e d i n s t e a d by l i t t l e more t h a n a p o l o g i a and p o l e m i c s f r o m t h e committed. Lawyers t e n d t o e l a b o r a t e v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e theme e x p r e s s e d by o n e j u d g e ( 3 ) , t h a t " t h e r e a r e t h r e e k i n d s o f l i a r : c o m o n l i a r s , damned l i a r s and s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t s " ; o r t h e y bemoan t h e
t y p i c a l s c i e n t i s t ' s l a c k of p r e c i s i o n and c l a r i t y . S c i e n t i s t s o n t h e o t h e r hand t e n d t o c o n t r a s t " T r u t h o r Powert1
-
" S c i e n c e i s a p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g s u b c u l t u r e whose main v a l u e i s t r u t h " ; t h e e t h i c o f l a w o n t h e o t h e r hand" i s t o win c a s e s r a t h e r t h a n t o s o l v e problems. The l a w y e r ' s "problem" i s n o t t o p r o d u c e t e s t a b l e p r o p o s i t i o n s b u t t o win t h e case". ( 4 ) The
s c i e n t i s t s t e n d t o s e e law o n l y a s a c o r r u p t i o n of t r u t h s i n c e , l i k e b a s e p o l i t i c s , i n t h e i r v'iew, i t s o n l y c o n c e r n i s c o n q u e s t .
Roger Smith h a s examined 19th c e n t u r y i n t e r a c t i o n s between m e d i c a l e x p e r t i s e and t h e c o u r t s v i a t h e i n s a n i t y d e f e n c e p l e a i n murder t r i a l s and has shown how t h e s e l o c a l t e n s i o n s r e f l e c t i m p o r t a n t u n d e r l y i n g con£ l i c t s o f a b r o a d e r kind"). These con£ l i c t s and dilemmas u l t i m a t e l y f o c u s upon q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p r o p e r modes of e x p r e s s i o n o f s o c i a l v a l u e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n s of s o c i a l a u t h o r i t y , y e t o b s c u r e d by t h e r h e t o r i c , t h e y remain unexamined, l e t a l o n e r e s o l v e d . Thus o n e o f t h e few books d e v o t e d t o t h e t o p i c h a s i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n e n t i t l e d " t h e o b l i g a t i o n s t o c o o p e r a t e t ' (of s c i e n t i s t s and l a w y e r s ) , y e t t h e whole book f o c u s s e s o n " t h e r e a s o n s why s c i e n t i s t s and l a w y e r s c a n ' t t a l k t o e a c h o t h e r " (6),, a s s e e n by e a c h s i d e .
I n modern t i m e s we have s e e n a t r e n d t o w a r d s more and more i n t e n s i v e i n t e r a c t i o n between s c i e n c e and l e g a l p r o c e s s e s , on s e v e r a l f r o n t s :
( i ) The r e c e n t f u s s o v e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e Y o r k s h i r e R i p p e r c a s e i n t h e UK, and t h e J o h n H i n c k l e y c a s e i n t h e US, i n d i c a t e s how s t r o n g l y t h i s a r e a o f i n t e r a c t i o n c o n t i n u e s , and how c o n f u s e d and c o n t r o v e r s i a l i t r e m a i n s . T h e r e a r e a l s o o t h e r c r i m i n a l c a s e s where t h e v a l i d i t y and meaning o f s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e h a s been a p o i n t o f more t h a n irmnediate c o n t r o v e r s y t o t h e c a s e i n q u e s t i o n , f o r example t h o s e i n v o l v i n g t h e Home O f f i c e f o r e n s i c e x p e r t who was r e c e n t l y a l l e g e d o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s to h a v e f a l s i f i e d
e v i d e n c e which was c r i t i c a l i n c o n v i c t i n g p e o p l e c h a r g e d w i t h murder.
( i i ) I n a d d i t i o n t o c r i m i n a l c a s e s which i n v o l v e c o n f l i c t i n g s c i e n t i f i c p e r s p e c t i v e s and which r a i s e w i d e r s o c i a l i s s u e s , t h e r e a r e a n
i n c r e a s i n g number o f c i v i l c a s e s which, a l t h o u g h f o r m a l l y couched i n terms o f t r a d i t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l i s e d l i t i g a t i o n , i n r e a l i t y e x p r e s s a c o n f l i c t o f w i d e r s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n s . Thus f o r example t h e a t t e m p t by two f a m i l i e s n e a r a busy r o a d j u n c t i o n i n London t o s u e A s s o c i a t e d O c t e l which p u t s l e a d i n p e t r o l , f o r h e a l t h damage to t h e i r c h i l d r e n
drew i n c o n f l i c t i n g s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e t o be r e s o l v e d i n a l e g a l s e t t i n g , y e t was c l e a r l y a c o n f l i c t o v e r government p o l i c y o n t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f l e a d i n p e t r o l . L i k e w i s e t h e l e g a l s u i t s o v e r t h e a l l e g e d damage c a u s e d by t h e d r u g Debendox c a r r y a g e n e r a l s o c i a l c o n f l i c t o v e r d r u g s a f e t y t e s t i n g and s t a n d a r d s , i n t h e medium o f
f o r m a l l i t i g a t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i e s .
Even i n t h e UK, where t h e s c o p e o f j u d i c i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n o n m a t t e r s t h a t m i g h t i m p i n g e o n p o l i c y h a s been much more r e s t r i c t e d t h a n i n t h e US, t h e s e t r e n d s t o w a r d s l e g a l c h a n n e l l i n g o f p o l i c y r e l a t e d
c o n f l i c t s a p p e a r t o be g r o w i n g . The e l e m e n t o f s c i e n t i f i c c o n f l i c t a s a c r u x o f t h e i s s u e a l s o seems t o be g r o w i n g i n prominence. The
S o l i c i t o r t o t h e Supreme C o u r t o f S c o t l a n d h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t " t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e p a r t p l a y e d by s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e i n o u r c o u r t s i s i n c r e a s i n g . T h i s f a c t t e n d s t o e m p h a s i s e t h e p r o b l e m s which
ll(7) s u r r o u n d t h e g i v i n g o f e x p e r t e v i d e n c e .
( i i i ) T h i s t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s g r e a t e r f o c u s o n s c i e n t i f i c c o n f l i c t i n t h e c o u r t s h a s b e e n complemented by a p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t i n q u a s i - l e g a l s e t t i n g s s u c h a s ( p r o s p e c t i v e ) p u b l i c i n q u i r i e s i n t o d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c h a s power s t a t i o n s , m i n i n g , motorways and g a s t e r m i n a l s ; and
( r e t r o s p e c t i v e ) t r i b u n a l s o f i n q u i r y i n t o d i s a s t e r s s u c h a s S e a Gem, F l i x b o r o u g h , S u m e r l a n d s and B a n t r y Bay. Such i n q u i r i e s h a v e i n t e n s i f i e d i n b r o a d e r s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , i n s c i e n t i f i c c o n t e n t , and i n l e g a l
f o r m a l i t y , d e s p i t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a t t e m p t s t o r e v e r s e t h i s . Even ikn r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l i n q u i r i e s , s u c h a s t h a t i n t o t h e B r i g h t o n M a r i n a , e l a b o r a t e , s c i e n t i f i c a l l y p r e t e n t i o u s , q u a s i - N e w t o n i a n g r a v i t y models o f s h o p p i n g p a t t e r n s h a v e become a n a l m s t o b l i g a t o r y , r i t u a l
c u r r e n c y o f a u t h o r i t y . I n b o t h f o r m a l c o u r t c a s e s and p u b l i c i n q u i r i e s t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t t h e i s s u e now b e a r s d i r e c t i m p l i c a t i o n s beyond a p a i r o f o p p o s e d p r i v a t e p a r t i e s means t h a t rnore e m p h a s i s h a s t o b e p l a c e d upon " g e t t i n g t h e f a c t s r i g h t " . When t h e j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n was o n l y t o r e s o l v e p r i v a t e c o n f l i c t s , i n t h e w r d s o f a n American j u d g e " a l t h o u g h i t was a s w e l l t h a t p a r t i c u l a r d i s p u t e s s h o u l d b e f a i r l y s e t t l e d , t h e r e was c o m f o r t i n t h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s h o u l d b e c o n f i n e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d "
. . .
"a c a s u a l a t t i t u d e " was t h u s a d o p t e d t o w a r d s f a c t f i n d i n g . I f t h i s e v e r was j u s t i f i e d , i t h a s l a r g e l y d i s a p p e a r e d i n t h e modern e r a , where w i d e s p r e a d l i t i g a t i o n o f p o l i c y i s s u e s w i t h g e n e r a l s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s "demands a more v i s i b l y r e l i a b l e and c r e d i b l e p r o c e d u r e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e f a c t e l e m e n t s i n t h e l i t i g a t i o n " . (8)
As e x p e r t c o n f l i c t s r e g a r d e d a s c r u c i a l t o a whole r a n g e o f p o l i c y i s s u e s h a v e become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t and i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o r e s o l v e , a t t e m p t s h a v e been made t o c o n t r o l e x p e r t d e b a t e by f o r m a l i s i n g i t , o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c o n f l i c t was r e a l l y due t o t h e l a c k o f f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f much s c i e n t i f i c d e b a t e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e model o f c o n t r o l t o which p e o p l e h a v e t u r n e d h a s been t h a t o f law, w i t h i t s w e l l - e n t r e n c h e d and o f t e n e l a b o r a t e r u l e s o f s t a n d i n g , e v i d e n c e and p r o c e d u r e . Thus t h e r e
( 9 ) h a s grown a s i g n i f i c a n t movement o n b e h a l f o f s o - c a l l e d " S c i e n c e C o u r t s l l
,
which a r e s u p p o s e d t o r e s o l v e s u c h p o l i c y - r e l a t e d e x p e r t c o n f l i c t s by s u b j e c t i n g them t o a l e g a l t y p e o f p r o c e s s . The f a c t t h a t no s u c h i s s u e h a s y e t been r e s o l v e d by s u c h a p r o c e s s i n r e a l l i f e i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n the f a c t t h a t t h i s i d e a s h o u l d h a v e o r i g i n a t e d and c o n t i n u e s t o be a d v o c a t e d by t h e i m p o r t a n t s e c t o r s o f t h e p o l i c y e s t a b l i s h m e n t and t h e US Congress.
I s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h e S c i e n c e C o u r t s q u e s t i o n l a t e r , b u t h e r e i t i s r e l e v a n t o n l y t o p o i n t o u t : how p r o b l e m a t i c t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c u n c e r t a i n t i e s and c o n f l i c t s h a s become f o r t h e p o l i c y p r o c e s s ; how s t r o n g l y e x i s t s t h e a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c r e a c t i o n t h a t g r e a t e r f o r m a l i s a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d ; and t h e f a i t h t h a t t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s o f f e r s s u c h d e f i n i t i v e s t r u c t u r i n g t o p r o d u c e r e s o l u t i o n . I n t h i s p a p e r I want t o d i s c u s s some o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s
which a p p e a r t o b e w i d e l y h e l d a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c c o n s e n s u s e , ( a n d by c o r o l l a r y , o f s c i e n t i f i c c o n f l i c t ) and which a p p e a r t o b e m o s t
d e e p l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d i n t h e law. From what i s r e a l l y o n l y a n e x p l o r a t o r y
d i s c u s s i o n , t h e o n l y c o n c l u s i o n s I w i l l draw a r e t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t
1
s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and c o n s e n s u s h e l d by law a r e f a l s i f i e d by s o c i o l o g i c a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f s c i e n c e , t h a t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t e s p e c i a l l y when w i d e r s o c i a l i s s u e s h i n g e upon r e s o l v i n g a n e x p e r t c o n f l i c t , a n d t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e s e f a l s e u n d e r p i n n i n g s , l e g a l p r o c e s s e s a r e n o t
a d e q u a t e means f o r r e s o l v i n g s c i e n t i f i c d i s p u t e s . I t is n o t f a r f e t c h e d t o s a y t h a t a n e n t i r e l y new p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t i s e i s needed i n t h e l a w , though I m u s t ernphasise t h a t h e r e I am, n o t p r e t e n d i n g t o make any c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h a t e f f o r t o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
L e g a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t s c i e n c e
S c i e n c e and l a w r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f a u t h o r i t y . Although
which by d e f i n i t i o n a r e m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l , o f t e n i n d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d and e n t a n g l e d . S o c i a l d i s c o u r s e h a s t o be a s h o r t h a n d form o f c o m u n i c a t i o n , c o n d e n s i n g s e v e r a l meanings and messages i n t o s i n g l e a c t i o n s o r u t t e r a n c e s , whose s y m b o l i c o r r h e t o r i c a l a s p e c t i s t h u s i n e v i t a b l y i m p o r t a n t . The j u d i c i a l a p p r o a c h d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a m r l d , and f o r i t s own l i m i t e d p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s e r a d i c a t e s i t by t h e a r t i f i c i a l
-
i f f u n c t i o n a l-
p r o c e s s which i t employs t o r e f i n e i s s u e s i n t o d i s c r e t e , o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l (15)
t e c h n i c a l q u e s t i o n s
.
A s t r i k i n g example o f j u d i c i a l e m p i r i c i s m was g i v e n i n a r e v i e w o f US l e g a l c a s e s where c l a i m s had been made f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r c a n c e r d e a t h s of v a r i o u s k i n d s (16)
.
These f e l l i n t o t m b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s : t h o s e where a t r a u m a t i c p h y s i c a l i m p a c t had been i n v o l v e d (e.g. a f a l l , o r p i e c e o f equipment h i t t i n g t h e e v e n t u a l c a n c e r v i c t i m ) a t t h e s i t e o f t h e c a n c e r ; and t h o s e i n v o l v i n g a r e c o r d o f c h r o n i c low l e v e l e x p o s u r e t o a g e n t s known t o be c a r c i n o g e n i c . .The l a t t e r t y p e o f c a s e n o r m a l l y i n v o l v e s o n l yp r o b a b i l i s t i c e v i d e n c e , b u t t h i s h a s come. t o be t r e a t e d i n h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d manner by s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t s w i t h ( t o t h e c o u r t ' s d e c i s i o n a b o u t a l l o c a t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ) r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l r a n g e s o f d i s p u t e o v e r r i s k m a g n i t u d e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e c a u s e - e f f e c t mechanisms i n v o l v e s t o c h a s t i c p r o c e s s e s , which a r e h i g h l y a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s t o g r a s p . Although t h e r e a r e no
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a c c e p t e d mechanisms t o e x p l a i n c a n c e r f o r m a t i o n by p h y s i c a l trauma, i n immediate c o n c r e t e e m p i r i c a l t e r m s t h e c a u s e e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p i s "obvious". S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p h y s i c a l trauma c l a i m s u p h e l d was f a r g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f low l e v e l e x p o s u r e c l a i m s , e v e n though
a c c e p t e d s c i e n t i f i c knowledge would h a v e m i l i t a t e d t h e o p p o s i t e . I n o t h e r words a n a p p a r e n t l y c o n c r e t e , e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p was t r u s t e d e v e n
though i t c o u l d n o t be e x p l a i n e d o r j u s t i f i e d by s c i e n c e , whereas a n a b s t r a c t , s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a c c e p t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p was more o f t e n t h a n n o t r e j e c t e d .
Another example o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e W i n d s c a l e I n q u i r y when q u e s t i o n s were r a i s e d a b o u t t h e l e v e l o f r e s e a r c h , m o n i t o r i n g and s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r s t a n d i n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n a t R a v e n g l a s s , a complex e s t u a r y n e a r t h e
Windscale d i s c h a r g e p i p e t o t h e I r i s h sea'''). O b j e c t o r s , a s p a r t o f t h e i r g e n e r a l c a s e a b o u t l a c k o f p r o p e r c o n t r o l , were t r y i n g t o p o i n t o u t t h a t s u c h r e s e a r c h and u n d e r s t a n d i n g was i n a d e q u a t e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h a m a j o r e x p a n s i o n b e i n g p r o j e c t e d , and w e r e p u r s u i n g t h i s c o u r s e i n q u e s t i o n i n g a
government s c i e n t i s t i n d e t a i l a b o u t r e s e a r c h . When t h e y a s k e d whether c e r t a i n measurements had e v e r been made ( t o a n e g a t i v e r e p l y ) , P a r k e r d r a m a t i c a l l y a d j o u r n e d t h e I n q u i r y , a s s e r t i n g t h a t s e r i o u s a l l e g a t i o n s were b e i n g made a b o u t u n s a f e l e v e l s o f a i r - c o n t a m i n a t i o n a t R a v e n g l a s s , and t h e s e s h o u l d b e meas'ured f o r t h w i t h "so a s t o p u t t h e m a t t e r beyond mere o p i n i o n " Even government and i n d u s t r y s c i e n t i s t s were s t a g g e r e d by
t h i s u n r e a l i s t i c demand and t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t l a y b e n e a t h it. Not o n l y was a complex, p r o j e c t i v e and s o c i o l o g i c a l argument ( t h o u g h i n v o l v i n g e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e ) b e i n g c o n v e r t e d i n t o a c r u d e c o n c r e t e e m p i r i c a l t e s t , b u t e v e n t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t h i s e m p i r i c a l t e s t
-
e s p e c i a l l y how t o i n t e r p r e t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d-
was c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . I n t h e e n d , however, P a r k e r h a d h i s way and t h e s o c i a l argument was d u l y submerged w i t h o u t t r a c e a s r u s h e d measurements were made, c o n t a m i n a t i o n was found t o be w e l l below o f f i c i a l l i m i t s , and a s a f i n a l i n s u l t o b j e c t o r s were t h u s r o u n d l y a c c u s e d o f s c a r e m o n g e r i n g 1T h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e d e s e r v e s w i d e r r e c o g n i t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n , .
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h a n o t h e r m a j o r l e g a l s e t - p i e c e on n u c l e a r power i n t h e o f f i n g , and I have w r i t t e n i t u p a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h e l s e w h e r e . However, t h e
e m p i r i c i s m o f j u d i c i a l r a t i o n a l i t y i s g e n e r a l l y w e l l r e c o g n i s e d ( 1 9 ) , and I w u l d l i k e t o t u r n t o o t h e r , r e l a t e d a s p e c t s which h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m p l i c i t j u d i c i a l model o f s c i e n t i f i c c o n s e n s u s , i n d e e d o f c o n f l i c t and c o n s e n s u s g e n e r a l l y .
Evidence and r e d u c t i o n i s m
E g g l e s t o n e h a s d i s c u s s e d t h e a r t i f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e j u d i c i a l
1
f a c t - f i n d i n g p r o c e s s :
' t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s r e q u i r e t h a t somewhere i n t h e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h a h a l t must b e c a l l e d , o t h e r w i s e l i t i g a t i o n would become i n t e r m i n a b l e
. . .
What d i f f e r e n t i a t e s j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o u r t s h a v e l a i d down r u l e s , which d i f f e r i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s from t h o s e f o l l o w e d i n t h e o r d i n a r y a f f a i r s o f l i f e , f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e f a c t - f i n d i n g p r o c e s s
-
/-i.e. how a n i s s u e i s d e f i n e d and r e s o l v e d - 7He g i v e s t h e example o f t h e S i m i l a r F a c t s r u l e . I n t h e c o u r t s , ' I f t h e q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r a p e r s o n h a s been n e g l i g e n t o n a p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n ,
e v i d e n c e t h a t h e h a s been n e g l i g e n t on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s w i l l n o t be a d m i t t e d ' (21) Yet t h i s would b e p r e c i s e l y t h e k i n d o f e v i d e n c e which i n ' t h e o r d i n a r y
a f f a i r s of l i f e f and even i n s c i e n c e , would i n f l u e n c e a s s e s s m e n t o f a n i s s u e . L i k e w i s e t h e q u e s t i o n of p r e v i o u s c o n v i c t i o n ; t h e j u d i c i a l f i c t i o n i s t h a t t h e i s s u e c a n be d e f i n i t e l y d e c i d e d by f a c t a l o n e , y e t i n r e a l i t y , s u c h i n f o r m a l circurns t a n t i a l f a c t o r s and q u e s t i o n s o f t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s
,
c r e d i b i l i t y e t c . p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n d e c i d i n g b e c a u s e t h e f a c t s a l o n e a r e h a r d l y e v e r s u f f i c i e n t . I n o t h e r w r d s , i n t h e j u d i c i a l moulding o f I
I
an i s s u e , h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s o f t h o u g h t and judgement
-
!t h e complex s t u f f o f r e a l s o c i a l a f f a i r s
-
a r e e x c l u d e d . T h i s i s e x t r e m e l y I I i m p o r t a n t when j u d i c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e a s k e d t o t r e s p a s s i n t o s o c i a l and~
p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . I
E g g l e s t o n e h a s - a l s o d i s c u s s e d how m a s t i f n o t a l l l e g a l judgements
~
a r e b a s e d upon f a c t u a l knowledge which i s i n a d e q u a t e i n a t l e a s t two I r e s p e c t s :
( a ) i t may b e s i m p l y i m p o s s i b l e t o v e r i f y o r r e f u t e w i t h much c o n f i d e n c e ; and ( b ) i t may be i n e x t r i c a b l y bound up w i t b t a c i t a s p e c t s of judgement which
c a n n o t be f u l l y s p e c i f i e d and c r o s s - c h e c k e d .
The f i r s t a s p e c t i s s e l f - e v i d e n t , b u t E g g l e s t o n e i l l u s t r a t e s what i s meant by t h e s e c o n d o n e . When a w i t n e s s t e s t i f i e s , f o r example, t o a p a r t y ' s
i n t o x i c a t i o n , o r e x h a u s t i o n , e l e m e n t s o f f a c t u a l d e s c r i p t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n e n t e r i n t o t o g e t h e r . L e g a l e x a m i n a t i o n demands t o t a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a l l t h e f a c t o r s i n t h a t w i t n e s s ' s o b s e r v a t i o n . But w i t n e s s e s w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o r e c a l l and e x p l i c a t e a l l t h e p r e c i s e p h y s i c a l s i g n s by which t h e v i s i o n a t t h e t i m e was t a k e n t o mean i n t o x i c a t i o n o r e x h a u s t i o n .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r o l e o f n o n - e x p l i c a b l e , t a c i t f a c t o r s i n judgement i s much more i n f l u e n t i a l t h a n commonly r e c o g n i s e d , e v e n i n a p p a r e n t l y
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d f a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h i s h a s been r e c o g n i s e d f o r
s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v a t i o n t o o ( 2 2 ) . The g e n e r a l p o i n t which E g g l e s t o n e makes o f t h e s e i n s i g h t s i s t h a t s u c h i n f o r m a l , t a c i t a s p e c t s o f ' f a c t u a l t r u t h s '
a r e n o t acknowledged i n t h e law, whose judgements a r e always couched i n terms o f f a l s e c e r t a i n t i e s and a b s o l u t e s ; i n j u d i c i a l a n a l y s i s c o n d i t i o n a l , p a r t i a l o r q u a l i f i e d t r u t h s a r e unknown; y e t i n r e a l i t y , t h o s e v e r d i c t s a r e b a s e d upon a complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f p r o b a b i l i s t i c and i n t u i t i v e
judgements and a s s o c i a t i o n s , whose l o g i c a l r u l e s a r e u n c e r t a i n and i n s e c u r e . For example t h e well-known though n o t f o r m a l l y r e c o g n i s e d r e s o r t t o ' t h e demeanour of t h e w i t n e s s v a s a way of a s s e s s i n g t h e c r e d i b i l i t y of e v i d e n c e i s a n i n e v i t a b l e n e c e s s i t y i n t h e many c a s e s where t h e b a r e f a c t s a r e
i n c o n c l u s i v e . S i g n i f i c d n t l y , many s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f s c i e n t i f i c con£ l i c t have documented s i m i l a r ad hominem methods o f a s s e s s i n g competing b e l i e f s ( 2 3 )
R e f l e x i v e r e a s o n i n q
A f u r t h e r p o i n t which undermines t h e i d e a o f r u l e - b o u n d c e r t a i n t y o r i n e v i t a b i l i t y c o n c e r n s n o t o n l y t h e f a c t - f i n d i n g p r o c e s s , b u t a l s o t h e employment of t h e e v a l u a t i v e r u l e s from which a d e c i s i o n is s u p p o s e d l y deduced. I n t h e o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n o f j u d i c i a l r e a s o n , t h e r e l e v a n t i n t e r p r e t i v e p r i n c i p l e s a r e o b v i o u s and c l e a r c u t . The judge s u p p o s e d l y s e e s t h e r e l e v a n t r u l e , f i n d s t h e f a c t s , o b j e c t i v e l y a p p l i e s t h e o b j e c t i v e r u l e t o t h o s e o b j e c t i v e f a c t s and d e c l a r e s an o b j e c t i v e v e r d i c t . I n p r a c t i c e , however, n o t o n l y a r e t h e f a c t s o f t e n ambiguous b o t h i n t h e i r r e l e v a n c e and
t r u t h f u l n e s s , b u t a l s o t h e r e l e v a n t l e g a l r u l e i s o f m n a m a t t e r o f c h o i c e . So t o o i s t h e way i n which i t may b e a p p l i e d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e i n
hand (24)
What a p p e a r s t o happen most o f t e n , t h e r e f o r e , i s t h a t t h e j u d g e f i r s t a p p r e h e n d s a v e r d i c t on the b a s i s o f i n t u i t i o n ; t h i s is s h a r p e n e d of c o u r s e by e v i d e n c e and l o g i c a s w e l l a s by m o r a l o u t l o o k and e x p e r i e n c e . He t h e n s e e k s a s t r u c t u r e of r e a s o n which j u s t i f i e s t h a t v e r d i c t i n terms of
o b j e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s , l o g i c a l r u l e s , and f a c t s . T h i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d r a t i o n a l i t y l e n d s t h e judgement a s p u r i o u s a i r o f n o n - a r b i t r a r i n e s s , o b j e c t i v i t y and e m p i r i c a l i n e v i t a b i l i t y and c e r t a i n t y . B a l a n c e s o f p r o b a b i l i t y , m a r g i n s of c r e d i b i l i t y , and o t h e r open c h o i c e s i n judgement
a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a p u b l i c language o f b l a c k and w h i t e , i n e v i t a b l y d e t e r m i n e d t r u t h s . T h i s i s o f c o u r s e a s u c c e s s f u l r i t u a l f o r g a i n i n g w i d e r a u t h o r i t y .
Holmes was an e a r l y con£ e s s o r o f t h i s c o m p l e x i t y u n d e r l y i n g t h e a p p a r e n t c e r t a i n t y o f j u d i c i a l r e a s o n :
'The f a l l a c y o f t h e l o g i c a l form
...
f l a t t e r s t h a t l o n g i n g f o r c e r t a i n t y and r e p o s e which i s i n e v e r y human mind. But c e r t a i n t y g e n e r a l l y i s i l l u s o r y , and r e p o s e n o t t h e d e s t i n y o f man. Behind t h e l o g i c a l form l i e s a judgement a s t o t h e r e l a t i v e w o r t h and i m p o r t a n c e o f com(eting l e g i s l a t i v e g r o u n d s , o f t e n a n i n a r t i c u l a t e d and u n c o n s c i o u s judgement i t i s t r u e , and y e t t h e v e r y r o o t and n e r v e o f t h e whole p r o c e e d i n g . You c a n g i v e any c o n c l u s i o n i n a l o g i c a l f o r m ' (25)A n o t h e r j u d g e , C h a n c e l l o r K e n t , was e v e n more f r a n k i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s own method :
1 1 s a w where j u s t i c e l a y , and t h e m o r a l s e n s e d e c i d e d t h e c o u r t h a l f t h e t i m e . I t h e n s a t down t o s e a r c h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s / - i . e .
-
t h e s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e works o n l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s and p r e c e d e n t s- 7 . . .
I m i g h t o n c e i n a w h i l e b e e m b a r r a s s e d by a t e c h n i c a l r u l e , b u t I a l m o s t a l w a y s f o u n d p r i n c i p l e s s u i t e d t o my v i e w o f t h e c a s e ' ( 2 6 ) I t i s i n t h i s endemic i n a d e q u a c y o f t h e r u l e s t o d i c t a t e ' f o r t h e m s e l v e s ' a n o b j e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n , o r d e c i s i o n , t h a t t h e whole q u e s t i o n a r i s e s o f j u d i c i a l ' c r e a t i v i t y 1 i n p o l i t i c a l o r s o c i a l a f f a i r s . Whereas t h e i r
judgements a r e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f a p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v i t y , t h i s c o n c e a l s t h e p o i n t s a t which t a c i t c h o i c e s h a v e h a d t o be made, b e t w e e n c o m p e t i n g p r i n c i p l e s and p r e m i s e s , o r between c o m p e t i n g p a r t i e s ' c r e d i b i l i t y . O f t e n t h e s e c h o i c e s and a s s u m p t i o n s e n t a i l m o r a l o r s o c i a l v a l u e s , e.g. a s s u m p t i o n s . a s t o where a u t h o r i t y r e s i d e s i n s o c i e t y , what c o n s t i t u t e s ' t h e r e a s o n a b l e man', o r 'what i s c u s t o m a r y 1 e t c . . Thus as many a n a l y s t s o f t h e j u d i c i a r y h a v e n o t e d , b e h i n d t h e f a c a d e o f o b j e c t i v i t y t h e r e i s ample s c o p e f o r t h e
i n a d v e r t e n t i n f l u e n c e o f s o c i a l v a l u e s and p r e s u m p t i o n s
-
"the known o r e x p e r i e n c e d f a c t s o f s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f t h e t i m e and p l a c e...
become p r o c e s s e d i n t o judgement" (27)I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e complex and d e l i c a t e t i s s u e o f t h e o r e t i c a l a c t i v i t y i n which s c i e n t i s t s o p e r a t e , and w h i c h i s u s u a l l y ambiguous and open-ended, i s n o t r e c o g n i s e d by t h e l e g a l mind. T h e r e a r e p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s why t h i s m i g h t b e s o
-
i t i s e a s i e r as a n o n - s c i e n t i s t t o c o n t r o l a s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t i n c o u r t by k e e p i n g t o c o n c r e t e f a c t s where o n e m i g h t b e a b l e t o them, r a t h e r t h a n a l l o w i n g thexu t o roam where t h e yc a n n o t be £01 lowed, i n t o t h e i r own s p e c i a l i s t t h e o r e t i c a l w r l d . However, t h e more f u n d a m e n t a l r e a s o n must be c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e j u d i c i a l c r a v i n g f o r rule-bound c e r t a i n t y i n a n a l y s i s . Recognising t h e ambiguous and t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n c o m p l e t e n a t u r e of a l l s c i e n t i f i c f a c t , o b s e r v a t i o n s and p r i n c i p l e s , would be tafitamount t o i t s r e c o g n i t i o n f o r l e g a l knowledge t o o , g i v e n t h e g r e a t e x t e n t t o which law c u l t i v a t e s i t s own s o c i a l a u t h o r i t y by r e f e r e n c e t o e m p i r i c i s t p o s i t i v i s t models o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge.
I t i s t r u e t h a t judges sometimes make g r e a t emphasis o f t h e
i n a d e q u a c i e s o f s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e i n s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s , b u t t h i s i s n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h l o y a l t y t o t h e g e n e r a l i d e o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e . I t i s a common j u d i c i a l theme t h a t s c i e n t i s t s have t o be h e l p e d t o e x p r e s s t h e t r u e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s by t h e r i g o r o u s , p r e c i s e d i s c i p l i n e of l e g a l e x a m i n a t i o n , b e c a u s e ( a l t h o u g h s c i e n c e may i n p r i n c i p l e by p r e c i s e and o b j e c t i v e ) i n d i v i d u a l s c i e n t i s t s a r e o f t e n b i a s s e d o r woolly-headed, and c a n n o t d i s e n t a n g l e o b j e c t i v e f a c t from t h e i r own o p i n i o n s a s p u r e l y a s
(28) t h e y s h o u l d be a b l e t o
.
F a c t s emptied o f v a l u e
Not o n l y i s t h e a c t i v e i n t e r p r e t i v e i n f u s i o n o f f a c t s u n r e c o g n i s e d by j u d i c i a l t h o u g h t , b u t t h e r e i s a l s o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e complete s e p a r a b i l i t y o f f a c t s from 'mere a r g u m e n t f , v a l u e s o r emotions.
T h i s i s e n s h r i n e d i n t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s where t h e r e i s t h e s t a g e of e v i d e n c e , f o s t e r e d by p r o o f s o f e v i d e n c e ; t h e n t h e c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e s t a g e o f
submiss i o n s a s t o t h e c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e t i v e p r i n c i p l e s t o a p p l y t h a t evidence.
Time af t e r t i m e t h i s f i c t i o n was impressed upon bemused o b j e c t o r s a t
Windscale, i n n o c e n t of l e g a l t r a d i t i o n s , when P a r k e r a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e y were i n d u l g i n g i n 'mere argument' r a t h e r t h a n i n f i n d i n g f a c t s . Indeed P a r k e r made h i s approach p l a i n a t t h e p r e l i m i n a r y m e e t i n g , i n which h e emphasised
t h a t h e had no d e c i s i o n s t o make, and had o n l y t o f i n d t h e f a c t s .
I t i s n o t o n l y ' i n s t r o n g l y p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s where t h i s p o s i t i v i s t i c b e l i e f l e a d s t o c o n f u s i o n o r worse. An i l l u s t r a t i o n i s t a k e n from t h e u s e o f p s y c h i a t r i c knowledge i n t h e c o u r t s . The American ' ~ u d ~ e Bazelon has been i n v o l v e d i n many c a s e s where e v i d e n c e h a s been g i v e n a s t o t h e m e n t a l
s t a t e and c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e a c c u s e d , even when i t had b e e n a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e y had committed a c r i m i n a l a c t ( 2 9 ) . T h i s h a s been a vexed problem e v e r s i n c e t h e e a r l i e s t u s e s o f e x p e r t e v i d e n c e o n t h e q u e s t i o n . The 1843 MINaghten R u l e s r e q u i r e d p s y c h i a t r i s t s t o tes t i £ y to w h e t h e r o r n o t def e n d a n c s c o u l d know t h e y w e r e a c t i n g c r i m i n a l l y . The p s y c h i a t r i s t s f e l t t h a t t h i s r u l e begged i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s . I t a l s o
l e f t t h e i r r o l e r e s t r i c t e d y e t a t t h e same t i m e c o n t r o v e r s i a l b e c a u s e t h e i r t e s t i m o n y u n d e r t h i s r u l e i n e v i t a b l y t r e s p a s s e d upon t h e s a c r e d r i g h t o f t h e j u r y t o d e c i d e t h e m o r a l i s s u e s o f g u i l t . T h e i r e x p e r t i s e was supposed o n l y t o s p e a k t o t h e f a c t s . Assuming t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between f a c t s and m o r a l e v a l u a t i o n t o b e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c h i e v a b l e , i n 1954 Judge Bazelon
r e v i s e d t h e r u l e i n t h e Durham c a s e . The Durham r u l e h e l d t h a t i f t h e d e f e n d a n t ' s a c t was t h e ' p r o d u c t of m e n t a l d i s e a s e o r m e n t a l d e f e c t ' , t h e n h e o r s h e m u s t n o t be d e c l a r e d g u i l t y . B a z e l o n assumed t h a t t h i s r u l e would a l l o w p s y c h i a t r i s t s t o advance a w i d e r r a n g e o f s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s
r e l e v a n t t o t h e c a s e . On t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i s p o s i t i v i s t j u d i c i a l a s s u m p t i o n s , h e a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s freedom t o o f f e r a r a n g e o f f a c t s would remove
t h e p s y c h i a t r i s t s
'
d i f f i c u l t y i n s e p a r a t i n g f a c t s f rorc o p i n i o n s and a s s e r t i o n s which t r e s p a s s e d o n t h e j u r y ' s e v a l u a t i v e r o l e . I n r e a l i t y i t d i d p r e c i s e l y t h e r e v e r s e , b e c a u s e u n r e c o g n i s e d by t h e c o u r t , t h e n e d f a c t s s o opened u p w e r e a l l , l i k e a l l o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s , couched i n t h e o r e t i c a l frameworks which i n t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f g i v i n g them meaning a l s o l e n t them i m p l i c a t i o n s which i n e v i t a b l y t e n d e d t o imply g u i l t o r i n n o c e n c e and t h u s c o n t i n u e d to t r e s p a s s o n t h e c o u r t ' s a u t h o r i t y . They c o u l d n o t e x i s t a s f a c t s w i t h o u t t h e s e i n t e r p r e t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n s . The j u d i c i a l a p p r o a c h assumed t h a t t h e r e e x i s t-
o r c a n exist-
p u r e e m p i r i c a l f a c t s , o f s o l f - c o n t a i n e d meaning i n d e p e n d e n t o f any s u c h i n t e r p r e t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n ( ' m e r e o p i n i o n ' a s t h e law would c a l l t h e s e ) . T h i s k i n d o f c o n f u s i o n and c o n f l i c t h a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e u s e o f e x p e r t e v i d e n c e f r o m a l l f i e l d s i n t h e c o u r t s . The a s s u m p t i o n t h a t f a c t and o p i n i o n a r e s t r i c t l y s e p a r a b l e c o n t i n u e s t o s u r v i v e a s a p r a c t i c a l myth d e s p i t er e g u l a r f a l s i f i c a t i o n a s w i t n e s s e d i n t h e c h r o n i c d i f f i c u l t y o v e r t h e u s e o f e x p e r t e v i d e n c e .
A f u r t h e r e n l a r g e m e n t upon t h i s p o i n t i s n e c e s s a r y . S c i e n t i f i c f a c t s may be s u f f u s e d w i t h i n t e r p r e t i v e l i f e , b u t when t h i s i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e
c o u r t r o o m , i t i s u s u a l l y i n m e d i a t e l y t a k e n t h a t s u c h t h e o r e t i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s i n d i v i d u a l i n o r i g i n , r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e s u l t of a v e r y g r e a t d e a l of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n
-
o f t e n i n f o r m a l-
between t h e e x p e r t s i n a f i e l d . B u i l t i n t o ' a s c i e n t i f i c f a c t t may b e a l i t t l e e m p i r i c a lo b s e r v a t i o n , and a g r e a t d e a l of s o c i a l n e g o t i a t i o n between t h o s e e x p e r t s , a s t o t h e meaning o f t h o s e o b s e r v a t i o n s . Even what i s a n e m p i r i c a l
o b s e r v a t i o n may be t h e s u b j e c t of a g r e a t d e a l of n e g o t i a t i o n between s c i e n t i s t s . The r e s u l t i s t h a t s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h i s much more a f r a g i l e achievement o f c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n , n e g o t i a t i o n and s o c i a l consensus t h a n i s r e c o g n i s e d i n t h e i d e a i n h e r i t e d from more e m p i r i c i s t t i m e s , o f t r u t h s d i c t a t e d by t h e i n h e r e n t l o g i c and meaning o f r e v e a l e d f a c t s . When t h i s e l a b o r a t e , s o c i a l l y r o o t e d , and i n f o r m a l i n t e r p r e t i v e e d i f i c e i s
r e v e a l e d by l e g a l p r o c e s s e s which u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y demand a b s o l u t e e m p i r i c a l p r o o f , t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e j u d i c i a r y t e n d s t o b e t h a t s i n c e i t i s n o t e m p i r i c a l proof i t must be mere i n d i v i d u a l o p i n i o n , r a t h e r t h a n t h e a r d u o u s l y r e f i n e d c o l l e c t i v e o p i n i o n o f many s p e c i a l i s t s . I t may be t h a t sometimes such t e s t i m o n y i s i n d e e d -based upon a n i d i o s y n c r a t i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e i n ' a g i v e n s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d , b u t t h e c o u r t s a p p e a r t o assume t h a t t h a t i s a l l t h e r e e v e r i s beyond t h e h a r d f a c t s
.
On t h i s a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t s c i e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , any c r i t i c i s m t h a t s c i e n t i f i c knowledge m i g h t be i n f u s e d w i t h s o c i a l f a c t o r s c a n o n l y be i n t e r p r e t e d a s an a l l e g a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l b i a s and c o r r u p t i o n . It i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y how P a r k e r t r e a t e d s u c h c r i t i c i s m s a t t h e Windscale I n q u i r y , a s s e r t i n g t h a t :
' I have no d o u b t a s t o t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h o s e c o n c e r n e d i n a l l of ( t h e c o n t r o l l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s ) and I r e g a r d t h e a t t a c k s made upon them as b e i n g w i t h o u t f o u n d a t i o n . Such a t t a c k s d i d n o t h i n g t o f u r t h e r t h e c a s e s of t h o s e who made them and a t t i m e s r e a c h e d a l e v e l o f a b s u r d i t y which was p o s i t i v e l y h a r m f u l t o t h o s e c a s e s t (30)
Yet v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e s e a t t a c k s were made n o t upon t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t o n t h e s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y of t h e s y s t e m
-
an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . The arguments were t h a t w i t h o u t a p l u r a l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e o f r e s e a r c h and c r o s s - c r i t i c i s m , 'and a c o m p l e t e l y open s t a n d a r d s s e t t i n g p r o c e s s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h s o many e x - n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y p e r s o n n e l t h e c o n t r o l l i n g b o d i e s m u i d i n e v i t a b l y t e n d t o d e v e l o p t h e i rknowledge
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t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f i n c o m p l e t e and ambiguous e v i d e n c e e t c . 1 i n d i r e c t i o n s which p o r t r a y e d n u c l e a r e n e r g y i n a f a v o u r a b l e l i g h t . Ont h e i n t e r p r e t i v e m d e l o f s c i e n c e , t h i s s t r u c t u r a l b i a s can b e r e c o g n i s e d w i t h o u t i m p l y i n g a n y t h i n g a b o u t p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y . I t j u s t acknowledges t h a t t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t s - w i t h i n which s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s p r o d u c e d , have some i n f l u e n c e upon t h a t knowledge. The p o s i t i v i s t j u d i c i a l model of s c i e n c e o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a s t o t r e a t any b i a s a s more o r less d e l i b e r a t e , and u s u a l l y ( b e c a u s e o f its t r a d i t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m ) as i n d i v i d u a l b i a s . The p o s i t i v i s t a c c o u n t s o f s c i e n c e i n p h i l o s o p h y h a v e tended t o e x a c t l y t h e same f a l l a c y , by assuming t h a t t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e t o a b s o l u t e , o b j e c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s rampant
\ = L I
s u b j e c t i v i s m and r e l a t i v i s m
.
Formal and i n f o r m a l c e r t i f i c a t i o n of knowledae
One c a n s e e f u r t h e r r e s u l t s o f t h e p o s i t i v i s t a s s u m p t i o n i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s . F o r example t h e r e h a s been l i t t l e o r no d i s c u s s i o n a s f a r a s I know, o f t h e problem of h e a r s a y e v i d e n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o e x p e r t w i t n e s s e s . Yet g i v e n t h a t s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s d e v e l o p e d and d i f f u s e d n o t s o much by i n d e p e n d e n t tes t i n g b u t by s o c i a l t r a n s m i s s i o n v i a e s t a b l i s h e d a u t h o r i t y p a t t e r n s , i n f o r m a l h e a r s a y e v i d e n c e i s an e s s e n t i a l component o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge. I m p o r t a n t w r k h a s o f t e n n o t even r e a c h e d t h e f o r m a l l i t e r a t u r e , s o t h a t d i r e c t p e r s o n a l c i t i n g i s u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o o . A l l t h i s i s a form o f h e a r s a y , which i s p r o h i b i t e d i n l a y t e s t i m n y , and w h i c h h a s n o t been a d e q u a t e l y c l a r i f i e d i n t h e l e g a l r o l e o f e x p e r t i s e b e c a u s e t h e f a l s e model o f s c i e n c e employed does n o t even r e c o g n i s e t h e problem. A v i v i d example o f t h i s was g i v e n a t t h e W i n d s c a l e I n q u i r y , when an American e x p e r t r a d i o b i o l o g i s t s e n t h i s s c i e n t i f i c t e s t i m o n y , b a s e d upon m r k which had n o t y e t t h e n r e a c h e d t h e f o r m a l l i t e r a t u r e . E k p e c t i n g t o e n g a g e i n a s c i e n t i f i c d e b a t e w i t h t h e T r i b u n a l ' s e x p e r t a s s e s s o r i n r a d i o b i o l o g y o n h i s r e c e n t r e s e a r c h , h e was shocked t o f i n d h i s t e s t i m o n y d i s m i s s e d b e c a u s e o f i t s i n f o r m a l u p - t o - d a t e g r o u n d i n g . What c o u l d b e n e g o t i a t e d a s a c c e p t a b l e knowledge w i t h i n a s c i e n t i f i c s u b c u l t u r e c o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be a c c e p t a b l e
t o u t t e r l y f o r m a l l e g a l demands f o r documented e m p i r i c a l p r o o f . A f u r t h e r more g e n e r a l example o f t h i s m i s f i t between t h e i n f o r m a l ' n a t u r e o f s c i e n c e
and i t s v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o f o r m a l i s t i c l e g a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t s c i e n t i f i c
proof was g i v e n i n a p a p e r by l e g a l c o u n s e l who d i s p l a y e d t h e a l m o s t l i m i t l e s s p o i n t s where a c c e p t e d forms of a u t h o r i t y and meaning w i t h i n a s c i e n t i f i c s p e c i a l t y c o u l d b e made t o l o o k a r b i t r a r y when r u t h l e s s l y
(32) pursued f o r t h e i r e m p i r i c a l o r l o g i c a l s u p p o r t
.
The p o i n t i s t h a t s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s b u i l t more upon s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s and t a c i t judgements which d e v e l o p and c h a n g e f o r m a l r u l e s and s c i e n t i f i c norms r a t h e r t h a n m e c h a n i c a l l y r e f l e c t them. It i s t h u s an e l a b o r a t e s o c i a l a c h i e v e m e n t of i n f o r m a l p r o c e s s e s , which a r e c o n c e a l e d by t h e f o r m a l l o g i c and r a t i o n a l i n v a r i a n t r u l e s o f which p u b l i c a c c o u n t s o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge a r e c r e a t e d . I n t h i s , s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s
i d e n t i c a l t o j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . The k e y d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t be t h a t t h e l a w o p e r a t e s i n an i n e v i t a b l y p u b l i c s e t t i n g which i s l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d , and f o r m a l i s e d . I t t h e r e f o r e employs u t t e r l y d e p e r s o n a l i s e d l a n g u a g e s and norms. S c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s c r e a t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y v e r y s m a l l , i n f o r m a l s o c i a l g r o u p s w i t h f u z z y b o u n d a r i e s , and t h e knowledge i s c r e a t e d f o r t h a t i n f o r m a l s u b c u l t u r e . I t c a n a f f o r d t o r e t a i n a d e g r e e o f a m b i g u i t y and s o c i a l r e f e r e n c e which l e g a l d e c i s i o n s c a n n o t . T h i s i s t r u e u n t i l t h e s c i e n t i f i c knowledge ' g o e s p u b l i c ' , when t h e problems o f s o c i a l meaning and c r e d i b i l i t y a r i s e . I n l e g a l p r o c e s s e s , s c i e n t i s t s a r e s u b j e c t e d to f o r m a l c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n , judged by u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y e m p i r i c i s t , f o r m a l and p o s i t i v i s t e x p e c t a t i o n s . No k i n d o f knowledge c o u l d s u s t a i n i t s c r e d i b i l i t y when
s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s e c r i t e r i a . J u d g e s and t h e i r r e a s o n i n g a r e n o t exposed t o s u c h a r a d i c a l s c e p t i c a l s c o u r i n g , and a s t h e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n shows, t h e i r c r e d i b i l i t y would a l s o b e d e s t r o y e d i f t h e y w e r e . T h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d freedom t o d e s t r o y any s c i e n t i f i c t e s t i m o n y i s u s e f u l f o r the a u t h o r i t y o f t h e j u d i c i a r y o v e r s c i e n c e , b e c a u s e i f a l l s i d e s have b e e n c o n q u e r e d , i t a l l o w s w h i c h e v e r s c i e n t i f i c knowledge f i t s t h e o v e r a l l v i e w o f t h e j u d g e to b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e v e r d i c t . E g g l e s t o n e and T r i b e b o t h u n d e r l i n e t h i s r i t u a l e l e m e n t o f t h e u s e o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t i s e and r a t i o n a l - l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n when t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s u s e d more f o r c o l l e c t i v e r e a s s u r a n c e i n t h e % a u t h o r i t y o f judgements t h a n f o r judgement p e r s e ( 3 3 ) . AS Arnold h a s a l s o p u t i t more g e n e r a l l y , "the f u n c t i o n of law
i s n o t s o much t o g u i d e s o c i e t y a s t o c o m f o r t it" w i t h the p r e t e n c e o f (34)
o r d e r , c e r t a i n t y and r e a s o n
.
The A d v e r s a r y P r o c e s s
The d e l i b e r a t e l y a d v e r s a r y n a t u r e of l e g a l p r o c e s s e s i s p r o b a b l y t h e i r m o s t w i d e l y c r i t i c i s e d and l e a s t u n d e r s t o o d p r o p e r t y , y e t i t i s a l s o t h e i r m o s t c e n t r a l p r i n c i p l e . I t i s o f t e n m o s t s t r o n g l y d e s p i s e d by t h o s e s c i e n t i s t s who h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d t h e r i g o u r s and f r u s t r a t i o n s of h a v i n g t h e i r e x p e r t i s e d i s s e c t e d i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n beyond t h e i r
(35) c o n t r o l , by good l e g a l c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n . "Science" a s s e r t s Boulding
,
"is a p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g c u l t u r e whose main v a l u e i s t r u t h " , where " c o n t r o v e r s y i s supposed t o b e s e t t l e d by some k i n d of a p p e a l to t h e f a c t s o r o b s e r v a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t h e c h a r a c t e r o r i n t e r e s t s of t h e d i s p u t a n t s . Arguments
&
horninem a r e c o n s i d e r e d v e r y bad f o r m i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c community, and t h e r e i s a s t r o n g e t h i c of t r u t h - t e l l i n g and v e r a c i t y . " As a l r e a d y n o t e d , however, t h i s p o l a r i s a t i o n i n t o t r u t h - t e l l i n g o r ad hominem judgement i s
t o o s i m p l i s t i c .
I n o n e s e n s e t h e a d v e r s a r y p r o c e s s s h o u l d b e a t t r a c t i v e t o s c i e n t i s t s
,
a t l e a s t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y dominant v i e w of s c i e n t i f i c c o n d u c t . T h i s v i e w h a s i t t h a t s c i e n t i s t s t h r i v e o n c r i t i c i s m and open a t t e m p t s t o r e f u t e e a c h o t h e r ' s and i n d e e d t h e i r own w r k , a s t h e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l s a f e g u a r d o f o b j e c t i v i t y and c o n s t a n t s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n . As a l r e a d y n o t e d , however, s c i e n t i s t s do n o t s e e k o u t c o n f l i c t i n t h i s f a s h i o n ; t h e y t e n d to s h u n i t and i n s t e a d o r i e n t t h e m s e l v e s s o c i a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y t o more c o m f o r t a b l e f e l l o w - b e l i e v e r s . They a r e t h e r e f o r e much less a t home i n an e n v i r o n m e n t dominated by p u r e s c e p t i c i s m and c r i t i c i s m t h a n m i g h t b e supposed. F u r t h e r m o r e , when, a s of t e n d o e s happen, a d v e r s a r y c o n d i t i o n s do a r i s e w i t h i n s c i e n c e :
( a ) t h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y less p u b l i c ; (b) t h e y a r e l e s s s t y l i s e d and f o r m a l ;
( c ) t h e y a r e w i t h i n t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e s o c i a l g r o u p s of s c i e n t i s t s i n v o l v e d , and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e c o n f l i c t c a n b e managed w i t h i n t h e i r own r e a s o n a b l y c o h e r e n t and f a m i l i a r t r a d i t i o n s .
None o f t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s remain when t h e s c i e n t i f i c con£ l i c t i s t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o a l e g a l p r o c e s s . Thus even a l t h o u g h s o c i a l a n a l y s i s o f s c i e n t i f i c d e b a t e s h a s shown t h a t a d hominem argument
-
s u p p o s e d l y t h e c o r r u p t i o n u n i q u e t o l e g a l (and p o l i t i c a l ) p r o c e s s e s-
i s r o u t i n e l y u s e dt h e r e a l s o ( 3 6 ) , i t s n e c e s s a r y u s e can o f t e n be c o n t r o l l e d and i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e i n f o r m a l c u l t u r a l norms and t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s p e c i a l t y concerned.
I t i s n o t , t h e r e f o r e , f e l t to be s u c h an e x p l o s i v e form o f argument a s i t i s when employed by a n a l i e n c o n t r o l l i n g c u l t u r e ( l a w ) which does n o t s h a r e t h e s p e c i a l t y ' s i n f o r m a l * c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and i s n o t s u b j e c t t o i t s s a n c t i o n s and c o n t r o l s .
C o n f l i c t and c r e d i b i l i t y
The f o r e g o i n g o u t l i n e o f t h e s o c i a l n a t u r e o f s c i e n c e b e n e a t h i t s f o r m a l i s t i c p u b l i c images a l s o e x p l a i n s a n o t h e r common a s p e c t o f s c i e n t i f i c con£ l i c t s i n l e g a l s e t t i n g s and e l s e w h e r e . A c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e modern s o c i o l o g i c a l a c c o u n t of s c i e n c e i s t h a t what s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e i s n o t t h e r e s u l t o n l y of t h e i r own i n d e p e n d e n t r e s e a r c h , b u t a l s o o f what t h e y a r e t o l d . I f con£ l i c t i n g views a r e advanced, t h e s c i e n t i s t may h a v e
i n a c e q u a t e d a t a t L ' make a ~ o n f i d e n t judgement i n f a v o u r - - o f o n e s c h o o l of t h o u g h t o r t h e o t h e r . T h i s may b e t r u e e v e n f o r h i s own s p e c i a l i s m where t h e judgement may b e e f f e c t i v e l y a l r e a d y made a c c o r d i n g to which s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t i t was i n which h e was s o c i a l i s e d , and i s even more t r u e f o r
judgements a b o u t o t h e r s p e c i a l i s m from h i s own. I t i s even more s t r o n g l y t r u e f o r t h e n o n - s c i e n t i s t who may have to judge between competing c l a i m s from s c i e n c e , n e i t h e r o f which c a n be i n d e p e n d e n t l y checked a g a i n s t n a t u r e . I n s u c h c a s e s t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k e r i s f o r c e d to r e l y upon c r e d i b i l i t y -
i n d i c a t o r s , s u c h a s f o r m a l s t a t u s , e . g . b e i n g P r o f e s s o r , FRS, r a t h e r t h a n a r e s e a r c h s t u d e n t ; h a v i n g been wrong i n p r e v i o u s c o n f l i c t s e v e n i f
u n r e l a t e d ; a p p e a r i n g r e a s o n a b l e and d e t a c h e d r a t h e r t h a n e m o t i o n a l o r o v e r - b e a r i n g ; h a v i n g u n p o p u l a r p o l i t i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s ; o r b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o t h e r e x p e r t s of h i g h o r low r e p u t e .
Thus o n e f i n d s t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e f o r m a l p u b l i c a c c o u n t of s c i e n c e does n o t r e c o g n i s e i t , s c i e n t i f i c judgement e n t a i l s s u c h c r e d i b i l i t y - f a c t o r s mixed i n w i t h ' o b j e c t i v e ' a p p r a i s a l of e v i d e n c e . I n t a c i t r e c o g n i t i o n o f
t h i s , s c i e n t i f i c c o n f l i c t s o f t e n v e r y q u i c k l y f o c u s upon s u c h l e x t r a n e o u s l p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e . L i k e w i s e t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s o f t e n u s e s s u c h c r e d i b i l i t y i n d i c e s ' i n making judgements, and c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n i s o f t e n d i r e c t e d t o t h a t e n d . However, n e i t h e r of t h e s e a r e r e c o g n i s e d i n t h e p u b l i c s e l f - i m a g e
o f t h e law, a g a i n b e c a u s e t o do s o would b e t o r e c o g n i s e t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c h i e v i n g an a b s o l u t e l y o b j e c t i v e way of knowing and d e c i d i n g . The e x i s t i n g means o f s o c i a l a u t h o r i t y would t h u s be l o s t .
A f i n a l i m p l i c a t i o n c o n c e r n s b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f c o n f l i c t and how i t s h o u l d b e r e s o l v e d . I n h e r e n t i n t h e v i e w o f s c i e n c e which I h a v e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e j u d i c i a r y , i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t where t h e r e i s c o n f l i c t between e x p e r t s , t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f o n e s i d e ( o r b o t h ) b e i n g i m p r e c i s e , i n c o m p e t e n t , i d e o l o g i c a l o r o t h e r w i s e b i a s s e d , and d e v i a t i n g from what i s t a k e n t o b e a s i n g l e p r e c i s e t r u t h i n p r i n c i p l e d i s c o v e r a b l e b e n e a t h con£ l i c t . Consensus i s t a k e n to be n a t u r a l , b e c a u s e t h e f a c t s , o n c e s e e n c l e a r l y , ' s p e a k f o r t h e m s e l v e s
'.
Many s c i e n t i s t s and i n d e e d t h e p u b l i c t a k e t h i s i d e a f o r g r a n t e d t o o , s i n c e t h e p u b l i c image o f s c i e n c e p o r t r a y s t h i s m y t h ( 3 7 ) . I t i s o f t e n a r g u e d , when s c i e n t i s t s a r e i n v o l v e d i n p u b l i c c o n f l i c t , t h a t i f o n l y t h e y c o u l d b e l e f t t o d e b a t e w i t h o n e a n o t h e ru n t r a m m e l l e d by t h e e m o t i v e i n t e r e s t o f p r e s s u r e g r o u p c o n t a c t s etc., . t h e y would f i n d ' t h e ' c o n s e n s u s w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y . However This may b e t r u e o n l y when t h e i s s u e i s d i s c o n n e c t e d s o s e v e r e l y a s t o be p o s i n g a t e c h n i c a l problem no l o n g e r t h e same a s t h e o n e which was i n t h e m i d d l e o f a s o c i a l c o n f l i c t , a n d t h u s no l o n g e r r e l e v a n t . More f r e q u e n t l y , t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s , t h e i n c r e a s e d m u t u a l c o n t a c t o f e x p e r t s i n s u c h s o c i a l i s s u e s h a s o n l y p o l a r i s e d and d e v e l o p e d c o n f l i c t , much t o t h e c h a g r i n o f s c i e n t i s t s and o t h e r s whose mythology a b o u t n a t u r a l c o n s e n s u s h a s t h u s been c h a l l e n g e d . The r e s p o n s e t o t h a t c o u n t e r e v i d e n c e h a s u s u a l l y b e e n to e l a b o r a t e t h e mythology, f o r example by o f f e r i n g v a r i o u s ways o f f u r t h e r ' p u r i f y i n g t
t h e p r o c e s s , s u c h a s s c i e n c e c o u r t s . The l e g a l s e t t i n g i s o n e s u c h p r o c e s s , w h e r e i n c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n i s s u p p o s e d to e x p o s e w h i c h e v e r e x p e r t p a r t y i s c o n c e a l i n g its i n c o m p e t e n c e , b i a s e t c . and t h u s l e a d d i r e c t l y t o r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t . N o t e t h a t t h i s b e l i e f j u s t i f i e s t h e w i d e s p r e a d c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n o f e x p e r t s o n p e r s o n a l i s t i c and o t h e r ' e x t r a n e o u s
'
g r o u n d s . It i s s i g n i f i c a n t , t o o , t h a t t h e a d v e r s a r y p r o c e s s f o r e x p e r t s i s s t a u n c h l y d e f e n d e d by many j u d g e s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e o f e x c h a n g i n g e x p e r t documents b e f o r e a c a s e were t a k e n t o o f a r , t h e n t h e n e c e s s a r yo p p o r t u n i t y o f e x p o s i n g t h e incompetence o f a n e x p e r t by s u r p r i s i n g him i n c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n b e f o r e t h e j u d g e and j u r y m u l d b e l o s t . M r . J u s t i c e
(39) P a r k e r i s a n a d v o c a t e o f t h i s v i e w
