By
K a r l H e i n z Göller and J e a n R i t z k e - R u t h e r f o r d
A g r o u p o f s c u l p t u r e d f i g u r e s and r e l i e f s d a t i n g from the M i d d l e Ages and c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o one o f the most i n t r i g u i n g l e g e n d s o f Regensburg, t h a t o f the D o l l i n g e r Saga, has g i v e n r i s e t o more t h a n one u n s o l v e d m y s t e r y . The group p o r t r a y s a k i n g and a j o u s t , b o t h o f them c o n n e c t e d w i t h the t a l e o f a townsman who f o u g h t a pagan k n i g h t f o r h i s K i n g ; but i t a l s o i n c l u d e s an enigma, i n the f i g u r e o f an E n g l i s h s a i n t , H o l y Oswald, k i n g and m a r t y r , who d i e d f o r h i s f a i t h as e a r l y as t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y i n N o r t h u m b r i a ,
I t has been c l a i m e d t h a t the Oswald f i g u r e has l i t t l e , i f a n y t h i n g , t o do w i t h the group, ^ and the i n s c r i p t i o n s under
2 t h e s t a t u e s do not p r o v i d e much h e l p f u l i n f o r m a t i o n . The t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y donor may s i m p l y have i n t e n d e d t o honour h i s p a t r o n s a i n t by a d d i n g him t o t h e group, b u t t h i s i s mere c o n j e c t u r e . The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the l e g e n d a r y b a t t l e took p l a c e on the S a i n t ' s F e a s t Day, t h e f i f t h o f A u g u s t , i s no better."^ Both assumptions are e q u a l l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y as an e x p l a n a t i o n of the i n c l u s i o n o f S t . Oswald i n the g r o u p . The s o l u t i o n i s f a r more t o be sought i n t h e l e g e n d and a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e S a i n t h i m s e l f ; i t i s t h e y w h i c h e x p l a i n the c e n t r a l f u n c t i o n o f the Oswald s t a t u e and the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e f i g u r e s i n the ensemble.
The j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f a German k i n g , a B a v a r i a n h e r o , and an E n g l i s h s a i n t i s a s t r i k i n g example o f the m a n i f o l d c r o s s - c u l t u r a l t i e s between E n g l a n d and B a v a r i a , and of t h e i n t i - mate r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two d u r i n g t h e e a r l y M i d d l e
Ages. T h a t Regensburg p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e r e l a - t i o n s h i p i s a p p a r e n t from K i n g A l f r e d ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Compendious History of the World from t h e L a t i n o f O r o s i u s . Augmenting t h e o r i g i n a l w i t h h i s own knowledge, A l f r e d de- s c r i b e s t h e a r e a between t h e Rhine and t h e Danube a s t h e l a n d o f t h e E a s t F r a n k s , and t h e r e s t as B a v a r i a : sindon Baegware, se dcel pe mon Regnesburg hcett ' t h e r e a r e t h e Ba-
4
v a r i a n s , t h e p a r t c a l l e d Regensburg.' V e r y n e a r l y t h e same words were used i n 1123 by H o n o r i u s A u g u s t o d u n e n s i s , a n o t - ed s c h o l a r who l i v e d i n t h e S c o t s ' M o n a s t e r y i n Regensburg:
Est in ea Noricus que et Bavaria, in qua est c i v i t a s Ratis- pone 'Here a r e a l s o Noricum and B a v a r i a , i n which t h e c i t y of Regensburg i s l o c a t e d .1^ I n b o t h c a s e s Regensburg i s t h e o n l y c i t y mentioned, f o r i t s ascendancy a s t h e most impor- t a n t and most p o p u l o u s p o l i t i c a l c e n t r e i n Germany d u r i n g the e a r l y M i d d l e Ages was p r a c t i c a l l y u n c o n t e s t e d . ^
A n d r e a s Kraus p o i n t s o u t t h a t Regensburg was t h e u n d i s - puted c a p i t a l o f t h e r e a l m o f t h e E a s t F r a n k s a f t e r 8 8 87 - a f a c t w h i c h c a s t s l i g h t on A e l f r i c ' s use, i n h i s v e r s i o n of Bede's h a g i o g r a p h y , o f t h e term Francland i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S t . Oswald: -Pa asprang his h l i s a geond pa land wide and eac swilce to i r l a n d e and eac sup to franclande ' H i s fame s p r e a d w i d e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h o s e l a n d s , and t o I r e l a n d ,
o
and a l s o southward t o t h e l a n d o f t h e F r a n k s . ' Thus i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e l i b r a r y o f t h e Monastery o f S t . Emmeram i n Regensburg s h o u l d c o n t a i n a t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y man- u s c r i p t c o n s i s t i n g o f a c a r e f u l c o m p i l a t i o n o f a l l t h o s e p a s s a g e s which form t h e e a r l i e s t and most a u t h e n t i c a c c o u n t o f S t . Oswald - t h a t o f h i s landsman and n e a r - c o n t e m p o r a r y ,
9
the V e n e r a b l e Bede. T h i s a u t h o r t e s t i f i e s as e a r l y as t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e s p r e a d o f t h e c u l t o f S t . Oswald t o the C o n t i n e n t :
Nec solum inclyti fama uiri Brittaniae fines lustrauit uniuersosy
sed etiam trans oceanum longe radios salutiferae lucis spargens, Germaniae simul et Hiberniae partes a t t i g i t .1 0
( T h e fame o f t h i s r e n o w n e d man i l l u m i n a t e d n o t o n l y a l l t h e r e a c h e s o f B r i t a i n , b u t a l s o i n c l u d e d G e r m a n y a s w e l l a s I r e l a n d , e n l i g h t e n - i n g t h e m w i t h t h e r a d i a n c e o f i t s r a y s o f s a l v a t i o n , e v e n f a r a c r o s s t h e o c e a n . )
The f a c t t h a t the m a n u s c r i p t c o n t a i n s o n l y t h o s e passages w h i c h d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h the l i f e o f t h e S a i n t i s a c l e a r i n - d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e w r i t e r was e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n St.Os- w a l d . P e r h a p s Regensburg was, even a t t h a t t i m e , the c e n t r e o f a f l o u r i s h i n g p o p u l a r c u l t . ^ How and when the l a t t e r was b r o u g h t t h e r e , however, remains a m a t t e r f o r c o n j e c t u r e . Sev- e r a l s u g g e s t i o n s have been made i n t h i s r e s p e c t :
1. T h a t t h e c u l t was b r o u g h t t o E c h t e r n a c h b y W i l l i b r o r d , whence i t s p r e a d v i a t h e R h i n e a r e a t o F r a n c o n i a a n d B a v a r i a ;1^
2. T h a t t h e c u l t was b r o u g h t t o R e g e n s b u r g b y way o f F u l d a , p o s s i b l y d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f B o n i f a c e , a n d t h a t t h e B e n e d i c t i n e s w e r e i n -
13 s t r u m e n t a l i n i t s d i s s e m i n a t i o n ;
3. T h a t t h e c u l t was b r o u g h t t o W e s t p h a l i a b y t h e G u e l p h n o b i l i t y i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y a n d m o v e d f r o m t h e r e t o R e g e n s b u r g a n d S o u t h e r n B a v a r i a ;
4. T h a t t h e c u l t was p r o p a g a t e d b y S c o t t i s h monks, m o r e l ^ a n l i k e l y b y t h o s e o f t h e M o n a s t e r y o f S t . J a m e s i n R e g e n s b u r g .
W h i l e many p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s p r o b l e m have been t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , the f a r more i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n of t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of the c u l t o f S t . Oswald t o the C o n t i n e n t , and o f t h e r e a s o n f o r i t s e a r l y p o p u l a r i t y , has h e r e t o f o r e been o v e r l o o k e d . From the s e v e n t h t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , E n g l a n d and the C o n t i n e n t were swept by a wave o f v e n e r a t i o n f o r the Holy C r o s s . I g n i t e d , no d o u b t , by the r e s t o r a t i o n of the T r u e C r o s s t o Jerusalem by H e r a c l i u s i n the s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , and the d i s c o v e r y of a fragment o f t h e C r o s s i n S t . P e t e r ' s i n Rome a t the b e g i n -
1 6
n i n g o f t h e e i g h t h , the c u l t of the C r o s s no doubt d i d much t o a i d t h e growth o f t h e l e g e n d of S t . Oswald.
In e a r l y E n g l a n d he was b e s t known as the N o r t h u m b r i a n champion o f the c r o s s , f o r w i t h h i s b a r e hands he e r e c t e d a wooden c r o s s on the s i t e o f an a p p r o a c h i n g b a t t l e and then k n e l t t o p r a y w i t h h i s army, b e f o r e g o i n g on t o d e f e a t t h e
pagan h o s t . A c c o r d i n g t o l e g e n d , t h a t was t h e f i r s t o f t h o u - sands o f wooden and s t o n e c r o s s e s t o be e r e c t e d i n Northum- b r i a , and the deed was c o n n e c t e d t h e m a t i c a l l y w i t h the l e g - ends o f C o n s t a n t i n e (who l i k e w i s e c a r r i e d the s i g n o f the c r o s s as h i s b a t t l e s t a n d a r d ) ana o f h i s mother H e l e n (who was t h o u g h t t o have d i s c o v e r e d t h e remains o f the True C r o s s i n J e r u s a l e m ) . The s u b j e c t gave r i s e t o an abundance o f poe- t r y and p r o s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n A n g l o - S a x o n , and the F e a s t o f the I n v e n t i o n o f the C r o s s was e l e v a t e d t o one o f the h i g h e s t i n t h e e a r l y c h u r c h .1 7 A l c u i n , who d i d much t o shape t h e l i t - urgy o f t h e F r a n k i s h C h u r c h , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f F e a s t Days and t h e i r r i t u a l , was p r o b a b l y g i v e n a fragment of t h e T r u e C r o s s i n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h h i s r e q u e s t o f 796. But i t i s l i t t l e known t h a t he a l s o composed a hymn i n p r a i s e o f
1 8
Oswald, and t h a t A d a l w i n , the B i s h o p o f Regensburg, s p e n t 1 9
s e v e r a l months w i t h him i n the s p r i n g o f 801. T h i s c o u l d , of c o u r s e , be one o f t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e s o f d i r e c t c o n t a c t between Regensburg and t h e c u l t o f S t . Oswald, and the e a r - l i e s t Regensburg c h u r c h c a l e n d a r does c o n t a i n t h e F e a s t Day o f t h e S a i n t .2 0 But i t s u f f i c e s t o say t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s t i e s between e a r l y E n g l a n d and the C o n t i n e n t were so m a n i f o l d t h a t they r e s u l t e d i n a w i d e s p r e a d and i n t e n s i v e v e n e r a t i o n o f t h e S a i n t i n B a v a r i a , the A l p s , and even as f a r as V i e n n a .2 1
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e o r i g i n a l l e g e n d , Oswald was the k i n g o f t h e N o r t h u m b r i a n s . Due t o a d v e r s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s he was f o r c e d t o f l e e , f o r a t i m e , t o I r e l a n d , where he was c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . He became a f o l l o w e r o f S t . Columba and opened t h e way f o r I r i s h m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y i n n o r t h e r n E n g l a n d , where he i s c r e d i t e d w i t h h a v i n g c o n v e r t e d h i s e n t i r e r e a l m
t o the f a i t h . The c r o s s he e r e c t e d g a i n e d a r e p u t a t i o n f o r i t s m i r a c u l o u s h e a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s , and f r a g m e n t s were r e v e r e d as r e l i c s . Oswald became a symbol o f the C h r i s t i a n k i n g , and o f the vanquishment o f pagans t h r o u g h t h e Crux i n v i c t a , t h e v i c t o r i o u s s i g n o f the C r o s s . L a t e r Oswald l i v e d a model
l i f e , becoming famous f o r h i s s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n and g e n e r o s - i t y t o t h e p o o r . He founded the famous L i n d i s f a r n e Monas- t e r y and e n t r u s t e d h i s f r i e n d A i d a n w i t h i t s d i r e c t i o n . One o f the m a j o r l e g e n d s i s t h a t o f the E a s t e r D i n n e r , when Os- w a l d was approached by b e g g a r s and commanded h i s s e r v a n t s t o g i v e them not o n l y the f o o d from h i s t a b l e , but the s i l -
22
v e r d i s h on which i t was s e r v e d as w e l l . The f i r s t known v i t a of S t . Oswald's i s found i n Bede's H i s t o r i a E c c l e s i -
23 astioa, but t h e r e are l a t e r E n g l i s h v e r s i o n s as w e l l . T h a t o f the monk R e g i n a l d (1165) has e m b r o i d e r e d the l e g - end t o i n c l u d e e l e m e n t s t h a t p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n Ger- man p o p u l a r v e r s i o n s of the l a t e r M i d d l e Ages (a r o y a l b r i d e ,
24
a w i l y r a v e n ) . C o n t i n e n t a l v e r s i o n s o f the l e g e n d t e n d t o n e g l e c t the r o l e o f the c r o s s i n the Oswald c u l t , and con- c e n t r a t e on o t h e r elements i n s t e a d .
F a r more i n t r i g u i n g i s t h e way i n which the f i g u r e o f the S a i n t i s p o r t r a y e d i n Regensburg, and the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h l i t e r a r y t r e a t m e n t and the c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s o f a new age b r i n g a b o u t . The e a r l i e s t i c o n o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a - t i o n s o f S t . Oswald i n B a v a r i a - more t h a n one of them i n Regensburg - have p r o v i d e d v a l u a b l e c l u e s as t o the popu- l a r i z a t i o n o f the l e g e n d , t h e metamorphosis o f the k i n g and m a r t y r i n t o a B a v a r i a n i z e d g u a r d i a n s a i n t o f townspeople
and f a r m e r s , and the r i s e o f a c o m p l e t e l y new v e r s i o n i n t h e form o f the M i n s t r e l ' s T a l e {Spielmannsepos) .
S e v e r a l monuments t e s t i f y t o the p o p u l a r i t y of the Os- wald c u l t i n Regensburg d u r i n g the t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r - t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . Among o t h e r s , t h e r e a r e the l a r g e s t a i n e d - g l a s s window i n t h e s o u t h e r n nave o f t h e C a t h e d r a l , d a t e d
1365, i n w h i c h Oswald and s i x t e e n o t h e r s a i n t s are p i c t u r e d 25
t o g e t h e r w i t h the V i r g i n Mary; the b a d l y damaged f r e s c o e s i n the G o t h i c c h u r c h e s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n s {Dominikanerkir-
2 6
che) and M i n o r F r i a r s {Minoritenkivche) ; a s t a t u e which once adorned the t h i r d and l a s t tower o f t h e O l d Stone
B r i d g e and i s now mounted above t h e South P o r t a l ; and, f i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e l i t t l e C h u r c h o f S t . Oswald f u r t h e r a l o n g t h e bank o f the Danube, o r i g i n a l l y a f o u n d a t i o n
{ S t i f t ) f o r t w e l v e i m p o v e r i s h e d young women who were t o 2 8 l e a d h o l y l i v e s o f p r a y e r f o r t h e i r b e n e f a c t o r s .
V a r i o u s f a c e t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l l e g e n d are p r e s e r v e d i n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e S a i n t as seen i n Regensburg. In E n g - l a n d , t h e Oswald f i g u r e g e n e r a l l y h e l d a s c e p t r e i n t h e one hand, s y m b o l i z i n g h i s s t a t u s as s a i n t l y k i n g ; and a c r o s s i n t h e o t h e r , s y m b o l i z i n g h i s r o l e as p r o p o n e n t o f the c r o s s i n E n g l a n d and v i c t o r o v e r t h e h e a t h e n i n the S i g n of t h e C r o s s . Sometimes, however, a h i g h , c o v e r e d d i s h , o f t e n r e - f e r r e d t o as a c i b o r i u m o r p y x i s - l i k e c o n t a i n e r , was sub- s t i t u t e d f o r the c r o s s t o s y m b o l i z e the s i l v e r d i s h he had
29
cut up and d i s t r i b u t e d t o the p o o r . In Regensburg and e l s e w h e r e i n Germany, m e d i a e v a l p o r t r a y a l s seldom, i f e v e r , f e a t u r e t h e c r o s s . In a f r e s c o i n t h e Convent Church o f Nonnberg i n S a l z b u r g - one o f t h e e a r l i e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , d a t i n g from 1150 - t h e S a i n t i s shown w i t h t h e m a r t y r ' s palm; a c c o r d i n g t o l e g e n d , p a l m - b e a r i n g a n g e l s a p p e a r e d t o him i n a dream t o f o r e t e l l t h e manner o f h i s d e a t h . ^ ° E l s e w h e r e , however, he c a r r i e s t h e d i s h and t h e s c e p t r e . L a t e r German l e g e n d i n t h e form o f t h e M i n s t r e l ' s T a l e has e q u i p p e d t h e f i g u r e of t h e S a i n t w i t h the f u r t h e r i c o n o - g r a p h i c a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e r a v e n b e a r i n g a r i n g i n i t s beak and o f t e n s e a t e d upon the d i s h o r r o y a l o r b . And i t i s i n t h i s form t h a t we f i n d the s t a t u e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the o t h - ers f o r m i n g the s o - c a l l e d D o l l i n g e r g r o u p . ^
The a r t i s t i c and l i t e r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e Oswald l e g e n d are v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . Curschmann has c o n f i r m e d t h a t the M i n s t r e l ' s T a l e o f S t . Oswald may w e l l have o r i g - i n a t e d i n Regensburg d u r i n g t h e t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h c e n -
32
t u r i e s , w h i l e Dünninger, who i s w e l l known f o r h i s r e - s e a r c h on the f o l k - l o r e o f Regensburg, was the f i r s t t o
p o i n t o u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a passage i n t h e poem which r e a d s :
Oswalt daz sage ich dir vüvwar, so solt du der vierzehen not- helfazre einer sin / das solt du haben von den gendden min.
( O s w a l d , I t e l l y o u [now] i n t r u t h , y o u s h a l l b e o n e o f t h e f o u r t e e n H o l y H e l p e r s , a n d y o u s h a l l h a v e i t t h r o u g h my g r a c e . )
T h i s passage he saw i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s t a i n e d - g l a s s C a t h e d r a l window, which shows Oswald and two o t h e r l o c a l
(and l a r g e l y B a v a r i a n ) s a i n t s , S t . L e o n h a r d and S t . B l a - s i u s , o f t e n c o u n t e d among t h e o t h e r f o u r t e e n known as the
33
Nothelfer. Dünninger goes on t o c o n c l u d e t h a t n o t o n l y the s e c u l a r t a l e o f Oswald, b u t a l s o t h e s a c r a l c u l t o f the F o u r t e e n H o l y H e l p e r s had t h e i r o r i g i n h e r e i n Regens-
34
b u r g , and t h a t Oswald was i n t e g r a l t o b o t h . T h i s i s no l e s s t r u e o f t h e D o l l i n g e r g r o u p , o f which Oswald once formed t h e c e n t r e , b u t here b o t h t h e a r t i s t i c and t h e l i t - e r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s a r e c l o s e l y bound up w i t h t h e h i s t o r y and t r a d i t i o n o f Regensburg.
Today o n l y a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l g r o u p i s t o be seen i n t h e s o - c a l l e d Dollingersaal, i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t - ed p a t r i c i a n house which once b e l o n g e d t o t h e f a m i l y o f t h a t n a m e .3 5 Most s t r i k i n g i s t h e l a r g e b a s - r e l i e f (4.90 metres l o n g and 2.20 m e t r e s h i g h ) which d e p i c t s a j o u s t between two armed k n i g h t s , one o f whom has been p i e r c e d under t h e e a r by h i s opponent's l a n c e . On one s i d e s t a n d s the mounted s t a t u e o f K i n g Henry I , b u t t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n l a c k s an i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e o r i g i n a l . O l d woodcuts and e n g r a v i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e k i n g once h e l d a c r o s s i n h i s r i g h t hand - an a s p e c t w h i c h f i g u r e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the b a l l a d . B o t h r e p r o d u c t i o n and t h e e n g r a v i n g s , however, show t h e k i n g w i t h a f a l c o n on h i s g l o v e d l e f t hand, a sym- b o l o f h i s nickname/ "The P o w l e r . "3^ On t h e o t h e r s i d e s t a n d s t h e monumental f i g u r e o f S t . Oswald, o v e r 2.20 me- t r e s h i g h . A l t h o u g h i n t h i s c a s e t h e o r i g i n a l s t a t u e has been p r e s e r v e d ( i t can be seen i n t h e M u n i c i p a l Museum),
i t , t o o , l a c k s an i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e . The u s u a l a t t r i b u t e s o f s c e p t r e and (covered) d i s h are e v i d e n t , but the r a v e n and t h e r i n g m e n t i o n e d by Wiguläus Hundt i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n have s i n c e d i s a p p e a r e d .3 7 The base o f the s t a t u e b e a r s the m i n i a t u r e f i g u r e s o f t h r e e male b e g g a r s , who may p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t the t h r e e ages o f man, Y o u t h , M a t u r i t y , and O l d A g e .3 8
The meaning o f the group and the s t o r y b e h i n d i t can h a r d l y be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . I t i s e v i d e n t l y i n t e n d e d t o p o r - t r a y an e p i s o d e commemorated by the D o l l i n g e r B a l l a d , a pop- u l a r t a l e w i t h a t r a d i t i o n t h a t might e x t e n d back s e v e r a l hundred y e a r s and was w e l l - e n o u g h known t o f i n d i t s way i n - to Clemens B r e n t a n o ' s e a r l y c o l l e c t i o n o f f o l k - s o n g s en-
39
t i t l e d Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1805-08). T h e r e i s l i t t l e need t o d i s c u s s the problem o f p r i o r i t y ; c r e d i b l e arguments have been o f f e r e d f o r the p r e c e d e n c e o f b o t h t h e s t a t u e s and the b a l l a d . A knowledge o f the b a l l a d and the s t o r y be- h i n d i t i s , however, e s s e n t i a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o l e o f S t . Oswald and the r e a s o n f o r h i s i n c l u s i o n i n the s t a t u e group.
The best-known v e r s i o n i s t h a t c o n t a i n e d i n a parchment d a t e d 1552 and d i s p l a y e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h m i s c e l l a n y and a laudatio on K i n g Henry I , i n a d i p t y c h i n the D o l l i n g e r H a l l (where i t caused a s m a l l s e n s a t i o n by i t s r e c e n t d i s a p p e a r - ance and m y s t e r i o u s r e t u r n ) . A l t h o u g h the b a l l a d and i t s h i s -
40 t o r i c a l background have been d i s c u s s e d i n f u l l e l s e w h e r e , t h e t e x t , t o g e t h e r w i t h a f r e e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , i s o f - f e r e d i n c o n c l u s i o n t o t h i s a r t i c l e f o r c o n v e n i e n c e . Of p a r - t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s a s e c o n d v e r s i o n o f t h e b a l l a d , p r e - s e r v e d t h r o u g h Johannes P r e c h t l von S i t t e n b a c h i n 1639, one which may d e r i v e from an even o l d e r v e r s i o n o f t h e l e g e n d . Here the k i n g has a g o l d e n c r o s s e r e c t e d on the s i t e o f the tournament:
Das ersah der Reiser und seine Frau, bald ließ er bringen
ein güldenes Kreuz, solches stekt er mitten auf den Plan Der teufel der mußt weichen.
( D i d K i n g a n d Q u e e n t h e n e e d b e h o l d , He h a d them b r i n g a c r o s s o f g o l d ; He s e t i t up u p o n t h e f i e l d - T h e D e v i l h a d t o y i e l d . )
The r o l e o f the c r o s s p r o v i d e s the key t o the p r e s e n c e o f t h e Oswald s t a t u e i n the group and t o the r e l a t i o n of the S a i n t t o the o t h e r main f i g u r e s i n the D o l l i n g e r B a l l a d . I t i s t h e l e g e n d o f t h e S a i n t as t o l d by Bede t h a t d e t e r m i n e s the p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s o f the D o l l i n g e r s t o r y : i n b o t h cases the k i n g h i m s e l f e r e c t s a c r o s s on the s i t e o f t h e b a t t l e , t h u s e n s u r i n g v i c t o r y f o r the C h r i s t i a n s i d e o v e r a pagan a d v e r s a r y . The c r o s s has t h e same f u n c t i o n i n a l l the v e r - s i o n s o f the b a l l a d : i t l e n d s the C h r i s t i a n h e r o s t r e n g t h by v i r t u e o f i t s m i r a c u l o u s power - j u s t as i t d i d i n N o r t h - umbria i n 638.
Even t o d a y , we f i n d s i g n s r e m i n i s c e n t o f the i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d t o the r o l e o f the c r o s s i n the l e g e n d a r y b a t t l e which i s s a i d t o have t a k e n p l a c e between D o l l i n g e r and h i s opponent, C r a c o , upon a h e a t h o u t s i d e the town w a l l s , now known as Haidplatz, 'Heath S q u a r e . ' A l t h o u g h many l o c a l h i s t - t o r i a n s have a t t e m p t e d t o d e r i v e the name o f the f i e l d where the b a t t l e t o o k p l a c e from the word 'heathen' (from OHG hei-
41
dan), i n s t e a d o f 'heath' (OHG heida) , s p e c i a l i z e d works on t h e growth and development o f Regensburg i n t h e M i d d l e Ages show t h a t the name o f t h e s q u a r e i s v e r y o l d , and on- l y d e s i g n a t e s what was once a v e r y l a r g e and open space of
42
empty w a s t e l a n d . The o l d I m p e r i a l i n n , which came t o be the b e s t i n town, and s h e l t e r e d the Emperor whenever he v i s i t e d the D i e t , was b u i l t d i r e c t l y n e x t t o the supposed s i t e o f the famous tournament. S i n c e 1456 i t has been c a l l e d Zum Goldenen Kreuz, 'At the S i g n o f the Golden C r o s s , ' and the name may w e l l have been chosen i n commemoration of the e v e n t c e l e b r a t e d by t h e b a l l a d and of the m i r a c u l o u s a i d which D o l l i n g e r r e c e i v e d t h r o u g h the s i g n of the C r o s s .4 3
The e a r l i e s t h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f the l e g e n d , p r i n t e d a t a t i m e when the s t o r y was p r o b a b l y s t i l l p o p u l a r , adds a number o f d e t a i l s not d i r e c t l y c o n t a i n e d i n the b a l l a d . D o l l i n g e r i s s a i d t o have been a d v i s e d by a monk o f N i e - dermünster Abbey t o have a c r o s s s e t up near t h e s i t e o f t h e b a t t l e , and t o g i v e thanks a t the Tomb o f S t . E r h a r d
44
a f t e r w a r d s . I n a s i m i l a r manner, the armour and helmet o f t h e s l a i n k n i g h t C r a c o were s a i d t o have been d i s p l a y e d t h e r e u n t i l t h e time o f K i n g C h a r l e s V, when t h e y were r e -
4 5
moved t o V i e n n a . In s p i t e o f the tendency of such c h r o n - i c l e s t o i n d u l g e i n f a b l e , t h e r e a r e some r e m a r k a b l e h i s - t o r i c a l c o r r o b o r a t i o n s o f the e a r l y i n t e g r a t i o n o f N i e d e r - münster Abbey i n t o the l e g e n d . S t . E r h a r d , t h e p a t r o n s a i n t and p o s s i b l e f o u n d e r o f t h e o r i g i n a l abbey was s a i d t o be a n a t i v e o f I r e l a n d , o r a t the v e r y l e a s t t o have r e c e i v e d h i s e d u c a t i o n i n I r i s h m o n a s t e r i e s ; hence, i t i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r i m p o s s i b l e t h a t he s h o u l d have been one o f t h o s e who h e l p e d
46 t o s p r e a d Oswald's fame.
Moreover, K i n g Henry I had a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e same Abbey, f o r he c o n t r i b u t e d a newer, l a r g e r c h u r c h , and was l a t e r b u r i e d t h e r e i n 955. A t t h e same t i m e , h i s widow J u d i t h was r e g a r d e d as the f o u n d r e s s o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n - g r e g a t i o n w h i c h s u p p l a n t e d the o l d e r one and which c o n t i n - ued t o f l o u r i s h u n t i l t h e s e c u l a r i z a t i o n i n 1803. I n t h e l i g h t o f such c o n t i n u i t y i t seems most p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e nuns o f Niedermünster Abbey were i n s t r u m e n t a l i n p r e s e r v - i n g not o n l y t h e memory o f t h e i r S t . E r h a r d , b u t a l s o t h a t o f the D o l l i n g e r l e g e n d and S t . Oswald. The armour, as w e l l as t h e s t o r y b e h i n d i t , were do doubt a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r t h e c o n v e n t , as shown by t h e p a i n t i n g s i n t h e c h u r c h some-
47
time d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s seems a l l t h e more l i k e l y i n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Oswald Window i n t h e C a t h e d r a l was donated i n 1365 by a canon o f t h e C a t h e - d r a l , Conrad von Heimburg, who was p r o b a b l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h
Niedermünster and w i t h the e f f o r t s o f h i s f e l l o w canon, Con- r a d von Megenburg, t o p r o p a g a t e the c u l t o f S t . E r h a r d and to p u b l i c i z e a m i r a c l e - Megenburg was h e a l e d o f p a r a l y s i s - a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e s a i n t . When Heimburg became B i s h o p o f Re- g e n s b u r g o n l y two y e a r s l a t e r , he made t h e F o u n d a t i o n a t - t a c h e d t o the o l d Church o f S t . Oswald on t h e Danube p o s s i -
48
b l e . And, f i n a l l y , Johann P r e c h t l von S i t t e n b a c h , who p r e - s e r v e d one v e r s i o n o f t h e D o l l i n g e r B a l l a d , i s on r e c o r d f o r
4 9 h i s a t t a c h m e n t t o Niedermünster i n 1600.
But t h e l e g e n d and t h e p r o c e s s o f i t s growth c a n be seen i n a s o c i o l o g i c a l as w e l l as i n a h i s t o r i c a l l i g h t . The D o l - l i n g e r group o f s t a t u e s r e f l e c t s the m e n t a l i t y o f a time a t w h i c h the M i d d l e C l a s s was r i s i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e and w e a l t h , and s e t t h e tone i n Regensburg. The h e r o , h i m s e l f , i s a com- moner who r i s e s t o t h e rank o f k n i g h t h o o d - a c a s e o f v i c a r - i o u s w i s h - f u l f i l m e n t t y p i c a l o f t h a t found i n l a t e r mediae- v a l German n a r r a t i v e s . As has a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d , t h e r a v e n and t h e r i n g o f t h e Oswald s t a t u e a r e d e r i v e d from t h e M i n s t r e l ' s T a l e , i n which we see a s i m i l a r phenomenon.
Here we f i n d a c o m p l e t e l y new Oswald, one who has l i t t l e i n common w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l f i g u r e , as w e l l a s a r a d i c a l l y d i f - f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t o f a c t i o n , s e t t i n g , and atmosphere. In the s e c u l a r v e r s i o n , t h e S a i n t a p p e a r s i n r e a l i s t i c g a r b and has been degraded t o a c h i l d o f t h i s w o r l d . S e l f - g a i n a p p e a r s i n p l a c e o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , w e a l t h i n p l a c e o f p o v e r t y , i n - d i v i d u a l h a p p i n e s s a s opposed t o t h e common w e l f a r e - i n o t h e r words, t h e v a l u e s o f w e l l - t o - d o m e r c a n t i l e c i t i z e n s r a t h e r than t h e a s c e t i c o t h e r w o r l d l i n e s s g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b - u t e d t o t h e S a i n t . Even h i s character i n d e l e b i l i s a s a P r i e s t K i n g5 0 i s abandoned f o r w o r l d l y prowess and adven- t u r e .
But Oswald does n o t remain t h e p a t r o n s a i n t o f t h e n o b l e and t h e w e l l - t o - d o M i d d l e C l a s s a l o n e . I n a f u r t h e r s t a g e of development he i s seen a s t h e g u a r d i a n o f f a r m e r s and
l i v e s t o c k , and as such he has l i v e d on i n B a v a r i a n h a r - v e s t customs and f o l k t r a d i t i o n . A t one t i m e , the l a s t s h e a f of the l a s t f i e l d was l e f t s t a n d i n g when the g r a i n was c u t i n autumn; l a t e r i t was bound and b r a i d e d t o r e s e m b l e the f i g u r e o f a man, and d e c o r a t e d w i t h wreaths and f l o w e r s . The f i g u r e was c a l l e d Oswald, and the ceremony was seen as a t r i b u t e t o him i n o r d e r t o ensure good weather and a r i c h
52
h a r v e s t . The custom has been c o n n e c t e d by some w i t h the a n c i e n t Germanic w o r s h i p o f the Aasen (OE ds i s t h e word f o r 'god'), and w i t h Wo tan or Donar, a t h e o r y which i s more than c o n t r o v e r s i a l . ^ A t any r a t e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t the c u s - tom c o n t i n u e d t o e x i s t up t o t h e l a s t g e n e r a t i o n , and even i n E n g l a n d s i m i l a r o b s e r v a n c e s i n r u r a l d i s t r i c t s - the w i n d i n g o f wreaths, the t w i s t i n g o f r e e d s i n t o emblems o f S t . Oswald, the mowing o f hay - a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h the F e a s t Day o f the S a i n t .5 4
Thus the c u l t o f S t . Oswald e v i d e n c e s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n h i g h l y t y p i c a l o f s a i n t s ' l e g e n d s d u r i n g t h e M i d d l e Ages.
With the r i s e o f towns and a new m e r c a n t i l e M i d d l e C l a s s , the C h r i s t i a n k i n g f a d e s as a f i g u r e o f i m p o r t a n c e , and a new c o n c e p t o f the S a i n t emerges, one more i n k e e p i n g w i t h the v a l u e s o f the s o c i a l s t r a t u m i n which the c u l t i s
embedded. With the r i s e o f the p e a s a n t c l a s s , a f u r t h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s e f f e c t e d , and a r u s t i c , B a v a r i a n i z e d l o c a l p a t r o n s a i n t grows i n i m p o r t a n c e . In the c a s e o f Os- wald, we can say t h a t t h e s e t h r e e f a c e t s o f h i s c h a r a c t e r as an o b j e c t o f v e n e r a t i o n r e f l e c t the v a l u e s and s u c c e s - s i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f the M e d i a e v a l T h r e e E s t a t e s . Thus the s a i n t ' s f i g u r e i s r e v e a l e d as a m i r r o r o f the m e d i a e v a l s o c i a l c o n t e x t which l e d t o i t s l i t e r a r y and p o p u l a r meta- morphosis h e r e i n Regensburg - a l o n g way from E n g l a n d i n more s e n s e s than one.
Das D o l l i n g e r l i e d
Es rait ein Türck aus Tiirokhen Lanndt, Er rait gen Hegenspurg in die stat
Da Stechen Wardt, von Stechen war im wolbekhant.
Da rait er fuer des Kaysers thuer.
'Ist niemant hin, der kumb her fuer, Der stechen Well vrnb leib vmb Seel vmb guet vmb Ehr,
vnnd das dem Teüffl die Seel wer?' Da warn die Stecher all verschwigen, kainer wolt dem Tiirokhen nit obligen, dem Laidigen man,
der so frefflieh Stechen khan.
Da sprach der Kayser zomigklig:
'Wie steht mein hoff so lästerlich!
hob ich khain man der Stechen khan vmb leib vmb Seel vmb guet vmb ehr, vnd das vnserm herm die see wer?' Da sprang der Dollinger herfüer:
'wol vmb wol vmb ich mues hin filer an den laidigen Man,
der so fref flieh Stechen khan!' Das erste reuten das sie da theten,
Sie füerten gegen einander Zway scharffe Speer, Das ain gieng hin, das ander ging her.
Da stach der Türck den Dollinger ab, das er an dem rückhen lag.
'0 Jhesu Christ, steh mir ietz bey, Steck mir ein Zwey, sind Irer drey, Bin ich allain,
vnnd füer mein Seel in das Ewig himelreiche! ' Da reit der Kayser zum Dollinger so behendt, er füert ein kreutz in seiner henndt, Er Strichs dem Dollinger über sein mundt -
der Dollinger sprang auff, war frisch vnnd gsundt.
Das ander reiten das sie da theten, da stach der Dollinger denn Türckhen ab, Das er an dsm ruckhenn lag.
'Du verheuter Teuffl, nun Stehe im bey, sind ircr drey, bin ich allain, Vnnd füer sein Seel
in die bitter helle Beyn!'
The D o l l i n g e r B a l l a d
A T u r k r o d e o u t f r o m t h e T u r k i s h l a n d T o w a r d s R e g e n s b u r g ; he r o d e i n t o t o w n
T h a t f o r t h e j o u s t s , h e knew, t h e r e h a d r e n o w n . He r o d e r i g h t u p t o t h e K a y s e r * s d o o r ,
' I s n o o n e h e r e ? L e t h i m s t e p t o t h e f o r e Who d a r e s t o j o u s t f o r t h e h i g h e s t s t a k e , F o r b o d y , s o u l , w e a l t h , a n d h o n o u r ' s s a k e , T h a t t h e D e v i l may t a k e h i s s o u l ? '
B u t a l l t h e j o u s t e r s s i l e n c e k e p t , N o n e w o u l d b y t h e T u r k b e m e t , T h e c r u e l man,
Who j o u s t s much b e t t e r t h a n m o s t who c a n . T h e K a y s e r s p o k e t h e n s c a t h i n g l y ,
' D e s p i c a b l e my c o u r t d o t h seem t o me!
H a v e I no man t o j o u s t f o r t h e s t a k e O f b o d y , s o u l , w e a l t h , a n d h o n o u r ' s s a k e , T h a t t h e L o r d p r e s e r v e h i s s o u l ?
T h e r e s p r a n g g o o d D o l l i n g e r t o t h e f o r e , ' F o r g o o d , f o r b a d , I m u s t r e s t o r e O u r h o n o u r a g a i n s t t h a t c r u e l man,
Who j o u s t s much b e t t e r t h a n m o s t who c a n I ' T h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t t h e y made t h e c h a r g e T h e y b o t h u s e d l a n c e s , s h a r p a n d l a r g e , A n d i t was s o
T h a t o n e w e n t t o , t h e o t h e r f r o .
T h e T u r k s t r u c k h a r d , he won t h a t r o u n d a n d l a i d p o o r D o l l i n g e r on t h e g r o u n d . '0 J e s u s C h r i s t , now h e a r my p l e a , R i d me o f two, f o r t h e r e a r e t h r e e , A n d o n l y o n e o f me;
A n d l e a d my s o u l t o H e a v e n ' s g o a l - s a l v a t i o n l ' T h e K a y s e r h a s t e n e d t o h i s k n i g h t ,
A c r o s s i n h a n d t o e a s e h i s p l i g h t , A n d t o u c h e d h i s l i p s w i t h t h e s a c r e d wood - H i s s t r e n g t h r e s t o r e d , g o o d D o l l i n g e r s t o o d . T h e n e x t t i m e t h a t t h e c h a r g e was made
'Twas t h e T u r k t h a t o n t h e g r o u n d was l a i d . 'O damned D e v i l , now h e a r h i s p l e a ,
T h e r e w e r e t h r e e o f t h e m , a n d b u t o n e o f me;
So l e a d h i s s o u l t o H e l l ' s b i t t e r g o a l - d a m n a t i o n
N o t e s
An u n l i k e l y p o s s i b i l i t y i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t e t c h i n g s b y M e r i a n f r o m 1650 show t h a t t h e s t a t u e o f S t . O s w a l d o r i g i n a l l y o c c u p i e d a p r o m - i n e n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e g r o u p ; c p . J o s e f D ü n n i n g e r , " S t . E r h a r d u n d d i e D o l l i n g e r s a g e : Zum P r o b l e m d e r g e s c h i c h t l i c h e n S a g e , " Bayerisches Jahr- buch für Volkskunde: 1953, e d . J.M. R i t z ( R e g e n s b u r g : J o s e f H a b b e l , 1953), p . 13, a n d a l s o A l f r e d S e y l e r , Die mittelalterliche Plastik Regensburgs
( [ d i s s e r t a t i o n ] M u n i c h , 1 9 0 5 ) , 78. P r o f e s s o r D ü n n i n g e r , who i s somewhat s c e p t i c a l o n t h e a g e o f t h e D o l l i n g e r l e g e n d , p r e f e r s t o s e e i n i t a p u r e f a b r i c a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f l a t e r l o c a l h i s t o r i a n s . We a r e i n d e b t e d t o t h i s w e l l - k n o w n a u t h o r i t y o n t h e f o l k l o r e o f R e g e n s b u r g f o r h i s h e l p - f u l a n s w e r s t o o u r q u e r i e s .
2
T h e f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n s w e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o C a r l W. Neumann, uze
Dollingersage ( R e g e n s b u r g : J . R a i t m a y r ' s e h e O f f i z i n , 1 8 6 2 ) , p . 8, a d d e d a t a l a t e r d a t e : [ l ] A b o v e t h e j o u s t : Barbarus Hie Solidis Certant Ger- manus Et Armis Germanus Vicit Barbarus Occubuit ' H e r e a b a r b a r i a n d u e l s w i t h a German w i t h m i g h t y w e a p o n s ; t h e G e r m a n c o n q u e r s , t h e b a r b a r i a n f a l l s . ' [ 2 ] T o g e t h e r w i t h K i n g H e n r y I : Fertur equo Celeri Hie Henricus In Ordine Primus: Aucupio Celeber Nee Minus Imperio 'Here s i t s H e n r y , t h e f i r s t i n number, u p o n a s w i f t h o r s e ; f a m e d a s T h e F o w l e r , b u t no l e s s a s E m p e r o r . ' [ 3 ] T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s t a t u e o f O s w a l d : Haec Statua Oswaldum, Si Nescis Seito Figurata Qui Rex Officio Gente Britanus Erat
' S h o u l d y o u n o t r e c o g n i z e i t , know t h a t t h i s s t a t u e i s o f O s w a l d , who was k i n g b y r a n k a n d B r i t i s h b y b i r t h . '
^ C p . , f o r e x a m p l e , D ü n n i n g e r , op. cit. 3 p . 13; Hugo G r a f v o n W a l d e r -
d o r f f , Regensburg in seiner Vergangenheit und Gegenwart ( R e g e n s b u r g :
P u s t e t , 1896; r p t . 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 229; J a c o b G r a t z m e i e r , "Das D o l l i n g e r h a u s z u R e g e n s b u r g , " Verhandlungen des historischen Vereins von Oberpfalz und Regensburg, 43 ( 1 8 8 9 ) , 2 6 3 - 6 4 ; a n d t h e c o m m e n t s i n M i c h a e l C u r s c h m a n n ,
Der Münchener Oswald und die deutsche spielmännische Epik ( M u n i c h : B e c k , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 190, w h e r e t h e s u g g e s t i o n i s made t h a t O s w a l d a p p e a r s i n h i s r o l e a s a k n i g h t l y o p p o n e n t o f h e a t h e n i s m .
4
H e n r y S w e e t , e d . , King Alfred's Orosius ( [ E a r l y E n g l i s h T e x t S o c i e - t y ( E E T S ) ] L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1883; r p t . 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 16.
5 C i t e d i n A n d r e a s K r a u s , Civitas Regia: Das Bild Regensburgs in der deutsehen Geschichtsschreibung des Mittelalters ( K a l l m ü n z : M i c h a e l L a s s - l e b e n , 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 6 .
6
H e r m a n n M e n h a r d t , R e g e n s b u r g e i n M i t t e l p u n k t d e r d e u t s c h e n E p i k d e s 12. J a h r h u n d e r t s , " ZdfA, 89 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 2 7 1 .
^ K r a u s , op. cit., p . 17.
Q
W a l t e r W. S k e a t , Aelfrie's Lives of the Saints ( [ E E T S ] L o n d o n : Ox- f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 0 0 ; r p t . 1 9 6 6 ) , V o l . 2, p . 140.
9
N o t a b l y B o o k I I I , C h a p t e r s 2-3, 5-7, 9-13; D o r o t h y W h i t e l o c k , Eng-
lish Historical Documents3 I: c. 500-1042 ( L o n d o n : E y r e & S p o t t i s w o o d e , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 6 9 1 , i n c l u d e s a p a s s a g e o n S t . O s w a l d f r o m a n I r i s h Life of St. Columba, w r i t t e n b y a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f B e d e ' s c a l l e d Adamnan; on t h e R e g e n s b u r g m a n u s c r i p t , s e e C u r s c h m a n n , op. cit. , 192.
10 B e d e , Ecclesiastical History, e d . C h a r l e s Plummer ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 0 6 ) , p . 152.
V o l k e r K o h l h e i m , " R e g e n s b u r g e r R u f n a m e n d e s 13. u n d 14. J a h r h u n - d e r t s , " Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, Beihefte, N.S. 19
( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 3 0 7 - 0 8 , p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e c h a p e l o f S t . Emmeram was c o n - s e c r a t e d t o S t . O s w a l d i n t h e d e c a d e o f 1 1 2 0 - 3 0 , a n d t h a t t h e r a t i o o f p e r s o n a l names t o p a t r o c i n i a l c h u r c h e s i n d i c a t e s an e a r l y p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e c u l t . K a r l B u s c h , Regensburger Kirchenbaukunst: 1160-1280 ( K a l l m ü n z : M i c h a e l L a s s l e b e n , 1932) , p p . 6 2 - 6 4 , a r g u e s c o n v i n c i n g l y i n f a v o u r o f a C h u r c h o f S t . O s w a l d o n t h e D a n u b e a s e a r l y a s t h e t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s .
1 2
F o r a n o v e r v i e w a n d d e t a i l s , s e e C u r s c h m a n n , op. c%t. , 188. B e d e , op. c i t . j l l l , C h a p t e r 13, r e l a t e s t h e e n t h u s i a s m o f W i l l i b r o r d , t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f t h e F r i s i a n s , f o r S t . O s w a l d . C a m i l l e Wampach, Sankt Wil-
librord: Sein Leben und sein Lebenswerk ( L u x e m b u r g : S a n k t P a u l u s , 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 61 a n d 6 7 f . , g i v e s a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e c u l t i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y a f t e r a v i c t o r y c e l e b r a t e d o n 5 A u g u s t . T h e r e l i q u a - r y k e p t t h e r e u n t i l 1534 may be i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e o n e l a t e r f o u n d a s p a r t o f t h e C a t h e d r a l t r e a s u r e i n H i l d e s h e i m ; c p . K a r l K ü n s t l e , Ikono-
graphie der Heiligen ( F r e i b u r g , 1 9 2 6 ) , V o l . 1, p . 4 8 1 . T h e c a l e n d a r o f W i l l i b r o r d , w h i c h s e r v e d a s a m o d e l f o r m o s t e a r l y G e r m a n c h u r c h c a l e n - d a r s , c o n t a i n s t h e F e a s t o f t h e S a i n t (Wampach, p . 6 1 ) .
^ S i n c e C a r o l i n g i a n t i m e s F u l d a h a d a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o n B a v a r i a , a n d o n R e g e n s b u r g i n p a r t i c u l a r . G e o r g B a e s e c k e , " D i e a l t d e u t s c h e B e i c h - t e , " Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprache und Literatur, 49 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , 354, d e s c r i b e s t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e r e f o r m e f f o r t s o f C h a r l e m a g n e a n d A l c u i n s p r e a d f i r s t t o F u l d a , a n d f r o m F u l d a t o M a i n z a n d e v e n R e g e n s - b u r g . T h e B e n e d i c t i n e s o f S t . Emmeram's h a d d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n s t o F u l d a , a n d , a s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , t h e F u l d a A n n a l s w e r e c o n t i n u e d i n R e g e n s - b u r g a f t e r 888.
14
J o s e f D ü n n i n g e r , S t . O s w a l d u n d R e g e n s b u r g : Z u r D a t i e r u n g d e s M ü n - c h e n e r O s w a l d , " Gedächtnisschrift für Adalbert Hömel ( W ü r z b u r g : K o n r a d T r i l t s c h , 1 9 5 3 ) , 20, p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p u p i l s o f A l c u i n w e r e r e s p o n s i - b l e f o r t h e g r o w t h o f t h e c u l t i n W e s t p h a l i a , a n d t h a t members o f t h e G u e l p h n o b i l i t y w e r e s a i d t o h a v e b r o u g h t new r e l i c s f r o m E n g l a n d i n 1094.
T h e t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y v e n e r a t i o n o f S t . O s w a l d was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g i n t h i s a r e a , i . e . W e i n g a r t e n a n d t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i c t o f C o n s t a n c e .
15 On t h e r o l e o f t h e S c o t t i s h monks i n R e g e n s b u r g - b o t h I r e l a n d a n d t h e e x t r e m e n o r t h o f E n g l a n d a r e c o v e r e d b y t h e t e r m ' S c o t t i s h , ' w h i c h s e e m s l e s s p r e c i s e t h a n t h e G e r m a n , iro-schottisch - , s e e A.M. S t e w a r t ,
" R e g e n s b u r g a n d S c o t l a n d , " Aberdeen University Review, 43 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 4 8 - 5 2 .
Cp. W i l l i a m O. Stevens, The Cross in the Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons, New York, 1904, as w e l l as M i c h a e l Swanton, The Dream of the Rood (Manchester: Manchester U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970), I n - t r o d u c t i o n , pp. 42-51.
17 Margaret Deansley, A History of the Medieval Church: 590-1000 (London, n.p., 1925? ^1969), pp. 69-71; cp. the d i s c u s s i o n and some new c o n c l u s i o n s on the l i t e r a r y impact o f the c u l t i n Jean R i t z k e - R u t h e r - f o r d , The Literary Motif of Light and Darkness in Anglo-Saxon Poetry ( [ d i s s e r t a t i o n ] Regensburg, 1978), pp. 140-44.
18
Cp. A. Berger, "Die Oswaldlegende i n der deutschen L i t e r a t u r : Ihre E n t w i c k l u n g und i h r e V e r b r e i t u n g , " Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, 11 (1886), 420; and Siegmar S c h u l t z e , Die Entwick- lung der deutschen Oswaldlegende ( [ d i s s e r t a t i o n ] H a l l e , 1888), p. 42.
19
Georg Swarzenski, Die Regensburger Buchmalerei: Studien zur Ge- schichte der deutschen Malerei des frühen Mittelalters ( S t u t t g a r t : Anton Hiersemann, 1969 ^1901 ] ) , pp. 3-4.
20
Swarzenski, p. 202, l i s t s the F e a s t Day o f the S a i n t i n an e a r l y Regensburg Church c a l e n d a r , i d e n t i f y i n g i t w i t h those o f S t . E r h a r d , S t . Emmeram, and S t . Wolfgang; thus t h e r e i s a s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Oswald was v e n e r a t e d i n Regensburg even d u r i n g t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d . The e x i s t e n c e o f an e a r l y Chapel o f S t . Oswald a t t a c h e d t o S t . Emmeram's Monastery as e a r l y as 1120 o r 1130 has been n e a t l y proven by Max P i e n d l , Fontes monasterii S. Emmerami Ratisbonensis - Bau- und kunstgeschichtli- che Quellen: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte des ehemaligen Reichsstiftes St. Emmeram in Regensburg ( [ T h u m und T a x i s S t u d i e n , V o l . l]
Kallmünz: Michael L a s s l e b e n , 1961), pp. 1-183.
21
Although most of the major monographs on the c u l t o f S t . Oswald or the M i n s t r e l ' s T a l e which arose from i t t r a c e the v a r i o u s paths by which i t spread, the most r e c e n t and c e r t a i n l y the most thorough t r e a t - ment i s t h a t o f Curschmann, op. cit., pp. 168-87.
22
Cp. Bede, op. ext., Book I I I , Chapter 6.
23
Cp. George H e r z f e l d , ed., An Old English Martyrology ([EETS] Lon- don: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1900), p. 136; Skeat, Aelfric's Lives, V o l . 2, pp. 125ff.; C. D'Evelyn and A . J . M i l l , The South English Legen- dary ([EETS] London: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956; r p t . 1967), V o l . 2, p. 367; C. Horstmann, "Die E v a n g e l i e n g e s c h i c h t e n der Homiliensammlung des Ms. Vernon," Archiv, 57 (1877), 241-316.
24
Cp. R e g i n a l d , Vita 5. Oswaldi Regis et Martyr is, ed. Thomas A r - n o l d (London: n.p., 1882), pp. 326-85. On p. 356, R e g i n a l d r e l a t e s t h a t an u n u s u a l l y l a r g e b i r d , p r o b a b l y a raven {'corvini generis'), s e i z e s the y e a r - o l d , but p e r f e c t l y p r e s e r v e d severed hand o f the S a i n t and f l i e s away w i t h i t when Oswy, Oswald's b r o t h e r , comes t o f e t c h the r e - mains. The b i r d p e r c h e s i n a dead ash t r e e , which immediately begins to bloom; and when the b i r d f i n a l l y l e t s the hand drop, a s p r i n g w e l l s up
o n t h e s p o t . A t t h i s p o i n t t h e r a v e n h a d a l r e a d y b e c o m e t h e emblem o f E n g l i s h k i n g s , b u t t h e m o t i f may go b a c k a s w e l l t o t h e O l d E n g l i s h i m - age o f t h e c a r r i o n ' b e a s t o f b a t t l e . '
25
Cp. A l o i s E l s e n , Der Dom zu Regensburg: Die Bildfenster ( B e r l i n , 1 9 4 0 ) , f o r a n e x c e l l e n t m o n o g r a p h o n t h e s u b j e c t ; a s w e l l a s J o h a n n e s S c h i n n e r e r , " Z u r D a t i e r u n g d e r G l a s m a l e r e i im R e g e n s b u r g e r Dom," Reper—
torium für Kunstwissenschaft, 37 ( 1 9 1 5 ) , 1 9 7 - 2 1 0 . On t h e f r e s c o e s , s e e D ü n n i n g e r , " S t . O s w a l d , " 2 5 - 2 6 .
2 £>
Cp. D ü n n i n g e r , " S t . O s w a l d , " 2 5 - 2 6 . P r o f . D ü n n i n g e r was t h e f i r s t t o n o t e t h e f r e s c o e s i n t h e C h u r c h o f t\e M i n o r F r i a r s , a n d h e d a t e s t h e m a t 1 3 2 0 .
27
J o h a n n e s S c h i n n e r e r , Die gotische Plastik in Regensburg ( S t r a s s - b u r g : H e i z u n d M ü l l e r , 1 9 1 8 ), p . 3 0 , s a y s t h a t t h e f i g u r e i s s i m i l a r t o t h e g e n e r a l s t y l e o f t h e D o l l i n g e r g r o u p , b u t t h a t no d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n i s a p p a r e n t ; o n t h e f o r m e r l o c a t i o n , s e e K a r l B a u e r , Regensburg: Aus Kunst-, Kultur- und Sittengeschichte ( R e g e n s b u r g : M i t t e l b a y e r i s c h e D r u c k e r e i - u n d V e r l a g s g e s e l l s c h a f t , 1 9 7 0 [ 1 9 6 2 ] ) , p . 1 0 8 .
2 8
B u s c h , op. cit., p p . 6 2 - 6 4 , a s s u m e s a C h u r c h o f S t . O s w a l d a s e a r l y a s t h e t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e l o c a t i o n d i r e c t l y o n t h e D a n u b e n e x t t o t h e o l d f e r r y , t h e s e c o n d - m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r o s s i n g b e f o r e t h e S t o n e B r i d g e was b u i l t , i s t y p i c a l : O s w a l d i s t h e p a t r o n s a i n t o f c r u s a d e r s , a n d h i s s t a t u e s a n d c h u r c h e s a r e o f t e n t o be f o u n d o n m a i n t h o r o u g h f a r e s .
2 9
R o b e r t L e s l i e M i l b u r n , Saints and their Emblems in English Churches ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l , 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 9 6 .
^ ° T h i s i n c i d e n t o c c u r s b o t h i n t h e E n g l i s h l e g e n d a n d i n t h e m i n - s t r e l ' s t a l e ; c p . W o l f g a n g B r a u n f e l s , e d . , Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie ( F r e i b u r g : H e r d e r , 1 9 7 6 ), V o l . 7 , p . 1 0 2 .
I n t h e m i n s t r e l ' s t a l e O s w a l d i s a n E n g l i s h k i n g i n s e a r c h o f a f i t t i n g b r i d e . He l e a r n s o f a s u i t a b l e p r i n c e s s , a n d h e c o n d u c t s h i s c o u r t s h i p t h r o u g h a r a v e n w h i c h i s a s c l e v e r a s i t i s v o l u b l e . T h e r a - v e n r e t u r n s w i t h a l e t t e r a n d a g o l d e n r i n g f r o m t h e l a d y . O s w a l d s e t s o f f t o w i n h e r w i t h 7 2 s h i p s a n d 7 2 , 0 0 0 s m a l l g o l d e n c r o s s e s , w h i c h h e h a s u s e d t o g a i n v o l u n t e e r s f o r t h e t r i p . D i s g u i s e d a s a m e r c h a n t o r g o l d s m i t h , he u s e s a r u s e t o a b d u c t t h e p r i n c e s s ; t h e p u r s u i n g h e a t h e n s a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t h e e n d . O s w a l d , who h a s t a k e n a vow, s p e n d s t h e r e s t o f h i s m a r r i e d l i f e i n c h a s t i t y a n d i n g e n e r o s i t y t o t h e p o o r a f t e r a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h C h r i s t , who p r o m i s e s t h a t h e s h a l l b e c o m e a s a i n t a n d one o f t h e f o u r t e e n H o l y H e l p e r s . Cp. G e o r g e B a e s e c k e , Der Münchener
Oswald, B r e s l a u , 1 9 0 7 , a n d Der Wiener Oswald, H e i d e l b e r g , 1 9 1 2 . 3 2
Münchener Oswald, l i n e s 3 5 0 1 - 0 3 ; c p . C u r s c h m a n n , op. cit., p .1 9 6 . 3 3
On t h e f o u r t e e n H o l y H e l p e r s , s e e B r a u n f e l s , op. czt., p p . 4 5 6 a n d 5 4 7 . T h e s a i n t s i n c l u d e d a r e D i o n y s i u s , E r a s m u s , B l a s i u s , B a r b a r a ,
M a r g a r e t i h a , K a t h a r i n a , G e o r g , A c h a t i u s , E u s t a c h i u s , Ä g i d i u s , C y r i a c u s , V i t u s , a n d C h r i s t o p h e r u s . L e o n h a r d was g e n e r a l l y s u b s t i t u t e d f o r C y r i - a c u s , b u t i n R e g e n s b u r g i t was O s w a l d , w h o s e F e a s t Day c o m e s d i r e c t l y a f t e r t h a t o f C y r i a c u s i n t h e c a l e n d a r . F o r t w o m a j o r v i e w p o i n t s o n t h e c u l t , s e e G e o r g S c h r e i b e r , Die Vierzehn Nothelfer in Volks frömmigkeit und Sakjralkultur: Symbolkraft und Herrschaftsbereich der Wall fahrtska- pellen, vorab in Franken und Tirol, I n n s b r u c k : W a g n e r , 1 9 5 9 ; a n d J o s e f D ü n n i n g e r , " D i e W a l l f a h r t s l e g e n d e v o n V i e r z e h n h e i l i g e n , " Festschrift für Wolf gang Stammler ( B e r l i n : B i e d e r f e l d , 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 1 9 2 - 2 0 5 .
34
D ü n n i n g e r , S t . O s w a l d , 2 6 .
35 S e y l e r , op. cit., p . 7 7 ; S c h i n n e r e r , Gotische Plastik, p . 23, c o n f i r m s S e y l e r ' s d a t e o f a b o u t 1 3 0 0 a n d p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e O s w a l d s t a t u e s h o w s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f n o r t h e r n F r e n c h c a t h e d r a l s c u l p t u r e .
^ F o r a t h o r o u g h d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s t a t u e s a n d t h e r o o m i n w h i c h t h e y a r e f o u n d , s e e L o t t e H a h n , " D i e D o l l i n g e r p l a s t i k i n R e g e n s b u r g , "
Oberreinische Kunst: ViertelJahrsberichte der oberrheinischen Museen,
3 ( 1 9 2 8 ) , 1 9 - 4 4 . 37
I b i d . , p . 2 6 f n ; a number o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o r r o b o r a t i o n s a r e a l s o named, b u t an e t c h i n g o f 1 8 4 9 d o e s n o t c o n t a i n t h e r a v e n a n d t h e r i n g , l e a d i n g H a h n t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e l o s t s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n 1 8 4 2 a n d 1 8 4 6 .
3 8
S u c h m i n i a t u r e f i g u r e s w i t h a l l e g o r i c a l o v e r t o n e s w e r e p o p u l a r i n m e d i e v a l s c u l p t u r e . T h u s , i f t h e s t a t u e now m o u n t e d a b o v e t h e S o u t h P o r t a l o f t h e O l d S t o n e B r i d g e s h o u l d a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t O s w a l d - a t h e o r y w h i c h seems d o u b t f u l i n v i e w o f t h e m i s s i n g a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s c e p t r e / d i s h , o r o r b - , i t i s n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e g r i m a c i n g mask w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h e c o n s o l e a t t h e f o o t o f t h e s t a t u e r e p r e s e n t s p a - g a n i s m v a n q u i s h e d ; f o r s i m i l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t ,
s e e J o s e p h B r a u n , Tracht und Attribute der Heiligen in der deutschen Kunst ( S t u t t g a r t : M e t z l e r , 1 9 4 3 ) , c o l s . 5 6 9 - 7 0 .
^ A c h i m v o n A r n i m a n d C l e m e n s B r e n t a n o , e d s . , Des Knaben Wunder—
horn X [ A l t e d e u t s c h e L i e d e r . E r s t e r T h e i l ] H e i d e l b e r g : M o h r u n d W i n - t e r , 1 8 1 9 ; r p t . , B e r l i n : H a u d e & S p e n e r , 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 3 6 - 3 7 , ' D e r D o l - l i n g e r . 1
4 0
K a r l H e i n z G ö l l e r , "Das R e g e n s b u r g e r D o l l i n g e r l i e d , " i n p u b l i c a - t i o n .
4 1
Among t h o s e who h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o d e r i v e t h e name f r o m ' h e a t h e n ' a r e : W a l d e r d o r f f , op. cit., p . 2 2 8 ; a n d C a r l W. Neumann, Die Kaiser- und Fürstenherberge zum 'goldenen Kreuz1 in Regensburg: Eine histori- sche Skizze ( R e g e n s b u r g : J . G e o r g B ö s s e n e c k e r , 21 8 8 6 [^1868]), p . 4 2 . D ü n n i n g e r , " S t . E r h a r d , " p . 1 4 , p o i n t s o u t t h a t s u c h i n t e r p r e t a t i v e e t y m o l o g i e s a r e t y p i c a l o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h i c h g a v e r i s e t o t h e p a r c h m e n t c o p y o f t h e b a l l a d .
