Country Reports
Waste Management in India
and Experience with the Implementation of Projects Based on Public Private Partnership Model
Sundeep Kumar
1. Background ...129
2. Total municipal waste generation ...130
3. Urbanization trend ...130
4. Status of MSW management in mega cities ...131
5. Waste characteristics ...131
6. Municipal laws and structure ...132
7. Legal provisions for MSW management ...132
8. Past experience of MSW management and PPP in this sector ...132
8.1. Collection and transportation operations ...132
8.2. Processing and disposal operations ...133
9. Reasons for lack of success of MSW management and PPP model ...136
10. Recent developments ...136
11. Expectations for the future ...137
12. References ...137
1. Background
Decades of improper Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management has resulted in the creation of huge dumpsites in cities. These dumpsites are causing considerable environmental pollution and are full to capacity in most cities. Land for new disposal sites is not easily available due to increasing urbanization and population pressure. In many cases there is considerable protest from surrounding villages for setting up of a new MSW disposal site.
Country Reports
2. Total municipal waste generation
India is home to 1.2 billion people of which 377 million live in urban areas – Urban areas are defined as having minimum population of 5,000 persons with at least 75 percent of the male workers engaged in non agricultural pursuits [1].
The total MSW generation in 468 cities with population over 100,000 per city was estimated at 48,134 Metric tonnes per day (MT/day) in year 2000 [3]. Such cities had a population of 265 million in 2011. This translates to an average per capita generation of about 0.18 kg per person per day. More recent estimates put the per capita waste generation for small towns is 200 to 300 gm/capita, 300 to 400 gms/capita for medium cities and between 400 to 600 gms/capita for large cities [2]. Practical experience suggests a current per capita average of about 0.40 kg/ capita for cites over 100,000 population.
Based on this per capita estimation the generation of MSW in cities with population over 100,000 per city is about 106,000 MT/day or 39 million MT per annum.
Solid Waste is defined under the MSW Rules [4] as follows:
Solid waste means and includes solid or semi-solid domestic waste, sanitary waste, commercial waste, institutional waste, catering and market waste and other non re- sidential wastes, street sweepings, silt removed or collected from the surface drains, horticulture waste, agriculture and dairy waste, treated bio-medical waste excluding industrial waste, bio-medical waste and e-waste, battery waste, radio-active waste generated in the area under the local authorities.
3. Urbanization trend
There is a steady increase in the urban population driven by low rural incomes and increases in population. The table below shows the trend in the last 3 decades.
Census Urban Population Total Population Percentage urban
Year population to total
million million %
2011 377 1,210 31
2001 286 1,029 28
1991 217 844 25
Source: Govt. of India Census for 1991, 2001, 2011
Table 1:
Urbanization trend
Infrastructure in cities is unable to cope with this influx of people into cities. The slum population in Indian cities has grown from 29 million in 2001 to 39 million in 2011 [1].
It is projected that the India’s Urban Population in 2030 will be 590 million [6] a steep increase over the 377 million in 2011.
Country Reports
4. Status of MSW management in mega cities
The poor status of MSW management in India’s premier cities is an indicator of the magnitude of the work required in India. Environmental pollution from smouldering unscientific dumpsites and from the leachate has become a great area of concern. Bur- ning of garbage (frequently practiced to dispose of uncollected garbage) is a contributor to serious air pollution.
These cities collect 70 to 80 percent of the MSW generated. However largely the treat- ment and disposal is not scientific. The status of treatment and disposal of MSW in such cities is indicated in the table below.
Table 2: Mega city MSW generation and treatment capacity
City MSW Generation Treatment Facility* Scientific Landfill
MT/day MT/day Type Disposal
Delhi 8,900 6,000 3 Waste to Energy and Only one of the one Composting plant 4 disposal sites is proper
Mumbai 8,000 3,000 1 Bio reactor None
Kolkotta 6,100 700 1 Compost Plant None
Chennai 3,800 300 1 Waste to Energy Plant None
Bangalore 3,700 3,300 10 composting plants None
Hyderabad 3,400 4,000 1 compost plant and
Scientific Landfill 1 Waste to Energy facility
* Operational or under construction
5. Waste characteristics
A comprehensive study on MSW Characteristics was carried out by National En- vironmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), published in 1996 placed the total Compostable matter between 30 percent to 56 percent, Inert material between 44 percent to 54 percent and the balance as paper, glass, leather, plastics, metals bet- ween 5 percent to 8 percent. The Calorific Value was estimated between 800 to 1,000 Kilocalories/kg on a dry weight basis.
A significant feature is the presence of a large number of unorganized waste pickers who collect the recyclable materials during the collection cycle.
In Indian MSW, the near absence of paper and plastics as well as the presence of high quantities of inert material, all combine to yield a low calorific value of the MSW (typically less than 1000 kcal/kg). In its mixed form, such waste may not be suitable for thermal processing. However, removal of inerts from Indian MSW as well as de- velopment of combustion system for low-calorific value wastes can result in a reversal of this position in the future. [5]
Country Reports
More recent studies place the organic content at 50 to 55 percent, inerts about 25 per- cent (sand/soil/earth) and about as 15 percent as paper, cloth, wood, plastic, metals etc.
Since the composition and characteristics can vary significantly across cities depending on the size of city and climatic conditions, its careful assessment is required prior to setting up of a Waste to Energy facility.
6. Municipal laws and structure
All urban areas are governed by Municipalities as per the Constitution of India. Muni- cipalities are governed by elected members. The day to day running of Municipalities is done be officers (non voting) with specialized knowledge of Municipal Administration.
Waste Management is one of the functions and responsibilities of the Municipality.
The State Legislature makes laws to:
• authorise a Municipality to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties, etc;
• assign to a Municipality such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected by the State Government,
• provide for making such grants-in-aid to the Municipalities from the Consolidated Fund of the State.
The State Finance Commission reviews the finances of the Municipalities and recom- mends principles for taxation and financing of the Municipalities.
The Municipal system is controlled by the respective State Governments (there are 29 States in India).
7. Legal provisions for MSW management
MSW Management is governed by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) . The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) under the Central Government issued rules the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, management of Solid Waste, which were applicable to all Municipalities. In 2016 the MoEF issued Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 superseding the earlier rules.
The National Green Tribunal (a special national court set up to deal exclusively with environmental matters) is also propelling Municipalities to implement the MSW rules and bring about a change in the MSW management in the Country.
8. Past experience of MSW management and PPP in this sector 8.1. Collection and transportation operations
Historically, the Collection and Transportation operations were performed by the Municipal Authorities using their own resources. The performance was largely below par due to budget constraints and use of high cost and inefficient manpower.
Country Reports
Over time, increasing number of collection and transportation contracts have been awarded to private players. Currently most of the large Municipalities award short to medium term contracts to private parties for collection and transportation. Street Sweeping and drain cleaning is generally being done by the Municipalities on their own.
Generally the collection efficiency ranges between 70 to 90 percent in major metro cities whereas in several smaller cities the collection efficiency is below 50percent. It is also estimated that the Urban Local Bodies spend about Rs.500 to Rs.1,500 per tonne on solid waste for collection, transportation, treatment and disposal. About 60 to 70 per- cent of this amount is spent on street sweeping of waste collection, 20 to 30 percent on transportation and less than 5 percent on final disposal of waste [2].
In terms of visible performance there is a great scope for improvement. Accumulation of waste at secondary collection points is common leading to unhygienic conditions within the city.
8.2. Processing and disposal operations
Processing and Disposal is currently the weakest link the management of Municipal solid waste with only 5 percent to 10 percent of the total MSW generation is actually processed.
First efforts at MSW management were by the Government. Efforts were made by Government of India in late 70s to set up, ten mechanical compost plants in selected cities. Unfortunately all of these were closed down for various reasons, including lack of maintenance, after a few years of operation. Some key examples of the efforts of the Government to treat waste were:
The Okhla Compost Plant in Delhi was set up in 1981 to convert biodegradable MSW into compost. The Plant ran for about 10 years and was finally shut down on account of operational difficulties. Subsequently this plant was taken over by a Private Ope- rator under a long term Concession Agreement. The Plant is now functional. In 1986 a Waste to Energy Plant was set up in Timarpur in Delhi using imported technology.
The plant was subsequently shut down due to operational issues arising out of the low calorific value of the waste vis a vis the design. A 5 MW bio methanation plant was set up in Lucknow in 2003 for generating gas from MSW. This plant failed on account of low biodegradable content in the MSW supplied.
Subsequently, private players also ventured into MSW processing and disposal ope- rations. The entry of private players in this sector was encouraged by the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) which was launched in 2005 to provide financial support to Municipalities for developing urban infrastructure.
The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) and Urban Infrastructure Develop- ment Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) schemes. JnNURM envisaged an investment of more than Rs.1,000,000 million during a period of 7 years from 2005-06 to 2011-12 with a Central Government share of Rs. 660,000 million. JnNURM was
Country Reports
a reform driven, fast track programme to ensure planned development of identified cities with focus on efficiency in urban infrastructure/service delivery mechanisms and covers 65 cities and towns. For the remaining urban areas, the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) was launched.
Broadly, to be eligible for grant (upto 40 percent of project cost) under the above men- tioned schemes required a minimum 30 percent of project cost contribution from the Private Sector. The balance funding was to be arranged by the State Government or through other sources
With funds under JnNURM and UIDSSMT Schemes, 46 MSW projects in 20 states were approved at a cost of Rs 19,250 million and Rs 6,940 million released. As on date (2014) 19 of the 46 projects supported are operational (Table 3). The support enabled some improvements in MSW management in certain states and cities but much re- mains to be done. [2]
State-wise MSW Projects funded under JnNURM are shown in Table 3.
No. States Projects Projects Sanctioned Operational
1 Andhra Pradesh 2 0
2 Arunachal Pradesh 1 0
3 Assam 1 0
4 Bihar 2 0
5 Gujarat 5 4
6 Harayana 1 1
7 Himachal Pradesh 2 1
8 Jharkhand 3 0
9 Karnataka 1 1
10 Kerala 2 1
11 Madhya Pradesh 2 1
12 Maharashtra 4 3
13 Manipur 1 0
14 Puducherry 1 0
15 Punjab 1 0
16 Rajasthan 1 1
17 Tamil Nadu 4 3
18 Uttar Pradesh 7 1.5
19 Uttarkakhand 3 0
20 West Bengal 2 1.5
Total 46 19
Table 3:
State-wise status of MSW projects funded under JnNURM The substantial investments made under JnNURM have failed to have the envisaged impact of the MSW management in the country. The reasons for the poor state of MSW management are outlined later in this paper
Country Reports
Waste to Energy has been attempted by both Government and Private sector in the past but the efforts have largely resulted in failure. A summary of such failed efforts is provided in the table below [2]:
Table 4: Reasons for failure of waste to energy projects
Reason Timarpur Vijaywada Hyderabad Lucknow Kanpur Lack of due diligence on the part
of investor and public sector Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Non-supply of committed quantity/quality
of waste to the plant by the municipal authority Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Presence of inerts – dust and C and D waste
in MSW delivered for processing, making Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes the operations difficult and very expensive
No market for sale of compost / RDF NA NA NA NP Yes Public outcry against the location of the plant Yes NA NA Yes NA Lack of financial viability of the project etc. Yes NA NA NA Yes
NA = Not Applicable, NP = No Production
Currently there are several Private Sector Companies involved in the processing of MSW and generally work under long term concessions from the Municipalities under a Build Own Operate Transfer model. The operations of some of the leading firms are provided in the table below (source of information are the Company Websites).
Table 5: Summary of key processing plants mandates by private players under public private partnership
No. Company Name Compost WtE Integrated
Total Plants Plants* Operations**
1 Hanjer Biotech Energies Pvt. Ltd # 23 0 0 23
2 A 2 Z Infrastructure Ltd # 9 0 12 21
3 IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure and Services Limited 18 2 0 20
4 Essel Infra projects Limited 0 11 1 12
5 Ramky Enviro Engineers Limited 5 5 0 10
6 Excel Industries 4 0 0 4
7 JITF Urban Infrastructure Ltd 0 4 0 4
8 Antony Waste Handling Cell Private Limited 0 1 0 1
Total 59 23 13 95
* Currently only one Waste to Energy (WtE) plant (JIFT Urban Infrastructure) is operational in India. One Plant is under commissioning (IL&FS) and four plants are under construction (IL&FS, Essel and Ramky)
** Both Collection and Processing and Disposal
# Many facilities have shut down operations
Country Reports
9. Reasons for lack of success of MSW management and PPP model
There are multiple reasons for the lack of success of MSW management and the PPP model. Some of the key reasons are listed below:
• Lack of expertise with the Municipalities to tender, evaluate technology, and moni- tor PPP contracts. This has resulted in award of tenders at very low and unsustaina- ble bid prices especially in waste processing. Such un remunerative prices has often meant closure of processing facilities after a few years of operation. For collection and transportation operations it has resulted in inadequate collection of waste from the cities.
• New entrants from the Private Sector did not possess the necessary expertise or financial strength to bid for and to run such waste management operations. There was a rush to acquire more and more projects in a hurry in this upcoming sector.
• Poor segregation of MSW and mixing of street sweeping and construction waste to MSW have made processing operations more difficult.
• Lack of seriousness and will on part of Municipalities to implement the Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules.
• Poor Municipal Financial Situation.
10. Recent developments
In 2014 the Prime Minister of India launched the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) or the Clean India Mission for a period of 5 years i.e. until 2019.
The Mission objectives are Elimination of open defecation, Eradication of Manual Scavenging, Modern and Scientific Municipal Solid Waste Management, To effect behavioral change regarding healthy sanitation practices, Generate awareness about sanitation and its linkage with public health, Capacity Augmentation for ULB’s and To create an enabling environment for private sector participation in Capex (capital expenditure) and Opex (operation and maintenance).
The estimated cost of implementation of SBM is based on unit and per capita costs for its various components is Rs. 620,090 million (over 5 years). The Government of India (GoI) share as amounts to Rs. 146,230 million (as grant). In addition, a minimum additional amount of Rs. 48,740 million shall be contributed by the States as State/ULB share. The balance funds is proposed to be generated through various other sources of fund which are, but not limited to: a. Private Sector Participation b. Additional Resources from State Government/ULB c. Beneficiary Share d. User Charges e. Land Leveraging f. Innovative revenue streams etc.
The availability of GoI funds long with the push for implementation from the Prime Minister himself has led to a steep increase in the activities related to MSW Processing.
Many Municipalities have floated tenders for MSW processing including several Waste to Energy Projects.
Country Reports
The Government of India has also launched the Smart City program wherein 100 cities from across the Country will be selected for a focussed program to convert them into modern and smart cities. Government of India funding is available for this program.
Since MSW management is a key aspect for any smart cities, this smart city program will also help in better MSW management.
11. Expectations for the future
It is expected that the momentum gained in MSW Management through the SBM will continue and more Municipalities will come out with proposals to invite the Private sector in MSW Management.
However, the success will be determined by the ability of the Municipalities to build up their competence levels and shore up their finances through appropriate taxes and user charges. The Private Sector too will need to be responsible for doing a quality job and bidding in a responsible manner.
12. References
[1] Government of India: Census of India 2011
[2] Government of India: Report of the Task Force on Waste to Energy Planning Commission, May 12, 2014
[3] Government of India, Central Pollution Control Board: Status Report on Municipal Solid Waste, 2010-11
[4] Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests: The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
[5] Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development: Manual on Solid Waste Management [6] Mckinsey Global Institute: India’s Urban Awakening: Building inclusive cities, sustaining eco-
nomic growth, April 2010
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Recycling Kompostierung Verbrennung Deponierung 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Anteil
%
Anteil
%
EU 27
Deutschland Rumänien
Malta Polen ZypernLettland Tschechien Slowake
i Ungarn Slowenien
Irland Estland
Portugal Spanien Großbritannien
FinnlandItalien Frankreich Luxemburg Österreic
h
Dänemark SchwedenNiederlande Belgien
Griechenland Litauen
Bulgarien
Abfallbehandlung in der EU-27 – Stand 2010
0 – 6 % 13 – 51 % 57 – 77 % 80 – 100 %
bereits erfüllt noch nicht erfüllt Ir-
land
Italien Litauen
Lettland
Luxem- burg Dänemark Nieder- lande
Belgien Frankreich
Spanien Groß- britannien Deutschland
Schweiz Tschechien Österreich Ungarn
Slowakei Slowenien
Polen
Griechen- land
Bulga- rien Rumänien Finnland
Schweden
Portugal
landEst- Norwegen
Österreich
Anteil % Belgien
Dänemark
Frankreich Deutschland
Niederlande
Schweiz USA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
stoffliche Verwertung
(Recycling) energetische Verwertung Deponierung
Sperrmüll 6,4 % Hausmüll, hausmüll- ähnliche Gewerbeabfälle gemeinsam über die öffentliche Müllabfuhr eingesammelt 37,2 % Abfälle aus der Biotonne 11,6 % Garten- und Parkabfälle biologisch abbaubar
12,8 % Gemischte
Verpackungen/
Kunststoffe 6,8 %
Papier, Pappe Kartonagen 15,8 % Insgesamt 37,22 Millionen Tonnen
sonstige Abfälle 0,5 %
Glas 5,1 % Metalle, Holz Textilien 3,7 % andere
getrennt eingesammelte
Abfälle 31,4 %
85 75 65 105
90 95 100
80 70 Produktion Mio. t
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 60
Leichtverpackungs-Sammelware Grobzerkleinerung Konditionierung
> 220 mm < 20 mm
Leichtgut (MKS) Siebklassierung Windsichtung
Magnetscheidung sensorgestützte automatische Klaubung und
Wirbelstromscheidung
sensorgestützte automatische und ggf. manuelle Produktkontrolle
Kunststoff- Hohlkörper Folien
AluPE PPPS PETMisch- Sortierrest kunst- stoffe PPKEBS Flüssigkeits-
kartons Weißblech Schwergut
> 220 mm Leichtgut
> 220 mm
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Thomé-Kozmiensky, K. J.; Thiel, S. (Eds.): Waste Management, Volume 6 – Waste-to-Energy –
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