Cross-cultural Study of Education

&URVVFXOWXUDO6WXG\RI(GXFDWLRQ

5HVXOWVRIHGXFDWLRQDOUHVHDUFKIURP:HVWHUQFXOWXUHV PD\ QRW EH XQLYHUVDOO\ YDOLG([WHQGLQJUHVHDUFK WR RWKHUFXOWXUHV PD\UHYHDO UHOHYDQW SKHQRPHQDDQG SURFHVVHVDQGDOORZ WKHVSHFLILFDWLRQRI XQLYHUVDOV DQG FXOWXUHVSHFLILFLWLHVDV LQIOXHQFHG E\JHQHWLF DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO IDFWRUVUHOHYDQW WRGHYHORSPHQWDQG OHDUQLQJ

First publ. in: International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences /

Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (eds.). Oxford: Elsevier, 2001, pp. 3003-3007

Konstanzer Online-Publikations-System (KOPS) URN: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-83048

URL: http://kops.ub.uni-konstanz.de/volltexte/2009/8304/

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

1. Formal and Informal Education

)RUPDODQG LQIRUPDO HGXFDWLRQDOFRQWH[WV DUH RI VSHFLDOLQWHUHVWIRUVWXGLHVRQHGXFDWLRQ%RWKFRQWH[WV SURYLGH RSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUDQGFRQVWUDLQWV RQLQGL YLGXDOOHDUQLQJDQGGHYHORSPHQW7KHVHPD\IXQFWLRQ LQGLIIHUHQWZD\VGHSHQGLQJRQWKHFXOWXUDOFRQWH[W

1.1 Differentiation of Formal and Informal Education

Formal education, IROORZLQJ WKH :HVWHUQ PRGHO FRQVLVWVRIV\VWHPDWLFLQVWUXFWLRQLQXQLYHUVDONQRZO HGJH DQGVNLOOV SURYLGHGDW SUHDUUDQJHGWLPHVDQG SODFHV E\VSHFLDOLVWV )RUPDOHGXFDWLRQDOVRH[LVWVDV LQGLJHQRXVHGXFDWLRQLQFOXGLQJLQLWLDWLRQFHUHPRQLHV LQVWUXFWLRQ SURYLGHGLQ DJHJUDGHVRFLHWLHV DQG YDUL RXV IRUPVRIUHOLJLRXVVFKRROLQJ VXFKDV 4XUDQLF VFKRROV7KHUHDUHFXOWXUDOGLIIHUHQFHV LQWKHLQVWLWX WLRQDOL]DWLRQRIIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQHJLQWKHRUJDQL]

DWLRQRIWKHHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPWKHUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ SXEOLFDQGSULYDWHVFKRROVWKH OHQJWKRIFRPSXOVRU\

VFKRROLQJWKH QXPEHURI\HDUV RIHOHPHQWDU\DQG VHFRQGDU\VFKRROLQJWKHVFKRROFXUULFXOXPWHDFKLQJ DQGLQVWUXFWLRQ

Informal education LQFOXGHV OLIHORQJVRFLDOL]DWLRQ LQIOXHQFHVIURPLQWHUDFWLQJHJZLWKIDPLO\PHPEHUV RUSHHUV LQ VHWWLQJVUHODWHGWR FXOWXUHVSHFLILFYDOXHV DQG QRUPVXVHIXO IRU HYHU\GD\ H[SHULHQFH ,Q DOO FXOWXUHVHGXFDWLRQWDNHVSODFHLQIRUPDOO\LQHYHU\GD\

VLWXDWLRQV LQ UHVSRQVH WR PRPHQWDU\ QHHGVDQG VRPHWLPHVVLPSO\LQYROYHVREVHUYDWLRQDQGLPLWDWLRQ IRU DVXPPDU\ VHH6HJDOOHW DO SS Informal traditional HGXFDWLRQLQFOXGLQJ PRUDODQG VSLULWXDODVSHFWVDVZHOO DVPDQXDOODERULVLQHVVHQFH DGDSWHGWRWKHORFDOFXOWXUDOV\VWHPZKLFKLWWHQGVWR SHUSHWXDWH$FFRUGLQJWR 'HVDOPDQG FKDUDF WHULVWLFV RIWUDGLWLRQDO$IULFDQ HGXFDWLRQ DV FRP SDUHGZLWK VFKRROLQJ DUH DV IROORZVLW LV SURYLGHG HYHU\ZKHUHDOO WKHWLPHDQGE\HYHU\RQHLWLVFORVHO\

WLHG WR WKHHQYLURQPHQW LQWHJUDWHGZLWK SURGXFWLYH ZRUN DQG DGGUHVVHV WKH QHHGV RIWKH VRFLHW\7W HPSKDVL]HV FRRSHUDWLRQ UDWKHUWKDQ LQGLYLGXDO FRP

SHWLWLRQHYHU\RQHFDQEHVXFFHVVIXO3DUHQWVDQGHOGHUV SOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHUHODWLRQVDPRQJSDUWLFLSDQWV DUHSHUVRQDOL]HGDQGRFFXUVLQWKHORFDOODQJXDJH

$V%UXQHU S L[ UHPDUNV6FKRROLQJLV RQO\

RQHVPDOOSDUWRIKRZDFXOWXUHLQGXFWVWKH\RXQJLQWR LWVFDQRQLFDO ZD\V,QGHHGVFKRROLQJPD\HYHQEHDW RGGV ZLWK D FXOWXUHV RWKHU ZD\V RILQGXFWLQJ WKH

\RXQJLQWRWKHUHTXLUHPHQWVRIFRPPXQDOOLYLQJ

1.2 Transmission of KnolV-holV in Informal Education

1.2.1 Apprenticeship. $QHVVHQWLDOSURFHVVLQLQIRU PDOHGXFDWLRQLV DSSUHQWLFHVKLS ,QIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQ FDQWUDQVPLWVSHFLILF HFRQRPLFDOO\XVHIXO NQRZOHGJH DQGRIWHQIROORZV D YHU\ VWUXFWXUHG DOEHLWLPSOLFLW SHGDJRJ\7KLV ZDV GHPRQVWUDWHG LQ*UHHQILHOGDQG /DYHV VWXG\ RI ZHDYLQJ DSSUHQWLFHVKLSV DPRQJ=LQDFDQWHFRJLUOV LQ0H[LFRDQG WDLORULQJLQ /LEHULD 0DVWHUVHPSOR\ VFDIIROGLQJWR HIIHFWDSUR JUHVVLRQ ZLWKLQ HDFKVWHSDOORZLQJWULDO DQGHUURU RQO\ LIWKHUHLV QR PDWHULDO ULVN,QIRUPDO HGXFDWLRQ WKXV LQYROYHV PRUH WKDQ MXVW REVHUYDWLRQ DQG LPLWDWLRQ9HUEDOLQVWUXFWLRQLVDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKH DSSUHQWLFHVKLSSURFHVVEXWWKH SXSLOVVHOGRP VSHDN DQGGR QRWDVN TXHVWLRQV

%DVHGRQKHUVWXGLHVZLWK1DKXD,QGLDQVRI0H[LFR

&KDPRX[SURYLGHVDW\SRORJ\RINQRZKRZRU VNLOODQGLWVWUDQVPLVVLRQWKDWGLVWLQJXLVKHV EHWZHHQ LQFRUSRUDWHG NQRZKRZDQG WKHPDVWHU\ RIDOJRU LWKPV7KHIRUPHUUHVXOWV IURPSHUVRQDO FRQFUHWH H[SHULHQFHRQHPD\KDYHDFHUWDLQVNLOOEXWQRWEHDEOH WRGHVFULEHLW,WLV WKHUHIRUHQRWHDVLO\ WUDQVPLWWHG E\

IRUPDO WHDFKLQJ DQGLV EHVW DFTXLUHG WKURXJKDS SUHQWLFHVKLSLHE\SDUWLFLSDWLQJLQ WKHDFWLYLW\

,QFRUSRUDWHG NQRZKRZPD\EHJHQHUDO RU SDU WLFXODULHWUDQVPLWWHGWRHYHU\RQHRURQO\WRFHUWDLQ LQGLYLGXDOV ZKR EHFRPH VSHFLDOLVWV 7UDQVPLVVLRQ RFFXUV HLWKHU ZLWK D PDVWHURU WKURXJK JUDGXDO LPPHUVLRQWKHODWWHULV SRVVLEOHLQWKHFDVHRIFXOWXUDO DFWLYLWLHVWKDWFDQIUHTXHQWO\EHREVHUYHG

1.2.2 Ethnotheories. ,QGLJHQRXV WKHRULHVRIHGXFD WLRQVWUXFWXUHWKH SHGDJRJLFDO PRGDOLWLHVLQ DFRKH UHQW IDVKLRQ &KDPRX[6XSHUDQG+DUNQHVV

,QVRPH W\SHV RIWUDGLWLRQDO LQIRUPDO HGXFD WLRQ HJIRU 1DKXDVREVHUYDWLRQ LV SUHIHUUHG WR LQVWUXFWLRQ DVD OHDUQLQJPHWKRGDQGPD\EHFRPE LQHG ZLWK ORZ SUHVVXUHWROHDUQDQGKLJK SUHIHUHQFH IRU WKH ZLOORIWKH DSSUHQWLFH

1.2.3 Guided participation in cultural activity. 7KH ZD\ FDUHWDNHUV VWUXFWXUH WKHDFWLYLWLHVRIFKLOGUHQLV

DQRWKHU FKDUDFWHULVWLF VWXGLHG E\ 5RJRII HW DO ZKRREVHUYHGFDUHJLYHUVDQG WKHLUWRGGOHUVLQ IRXUVHWWLQJV0D\DQ,QGLDQVLQDVPDOO WRZQLQ*XD WHPDODDWULEDOYLOODJHLQ >QGLDDQGWZRPLGGOHFODVV XUEDQQHLJKERUKRRGVLQ 7XUNH\DQGWKH86$ >Q WKH ILUVW WZR FRPPXQLWLHV FKLOGUHQ ZHUH QRQYHUEDOO\

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

1.2.4 Schooling and apprenliceship. 7KH WUDQVIHUDE LOLW\EHWZHHQSUDFWLFDODQGVFKRROEDVHGNQRZOHGJHLV RIVSHFLDO LPSRUWDQFH LQ HGXFDWLRQ UHVHDUFK 'HOERV DQG-RULRQREVHUYHGKRZHPSLULFDONQRZOHGJH LV FRQYH\HG LQ WUDGLWLRQDO SURIHVVLRQV LQ )UDQFH LQ FRQWUDVW WR VFLHQWLILF VFKRROEDVHG NQRZOHGJH ,Q DFWLYLWLHV ZKHUH FRPSHWHQFH LV DFTXLUHG WKURXJK H[SHULHQFHZLWKLQ WKH IDPLO\ NQRZOHGJH LV WUDQVPL WWHG QRWH[SOLFLWO\EXW WKURXJK SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ GDLO\

OLIH DQGDVLILW ZHUH DQ XQTXHVWLRQDEOH WUXWK :KLOH WKLV NQRZOHGJHLVVSHFLILFVFKRRONQRZOHGJHLV UDWKHU JHQHUDO DQG DEVWUDFW EXW WUDQVIHUDELOLW\ GRHV QRW DOZD\VOLYH XS WR WKHIDFWV

2. Educational Effects

2QHDLPRIHGXFDWLRQUHVHDUFKLVWRVSHFLI\FRQGLWLRQV IRUGHYHORSPHQWDQGOHDUQLQJ +RZHYHULW LV GLIILFXOW WR GHULYHJHQHUDOFRQFOXVLRQVRQWKH EDVLVRIRQO\

:HVWHUQZRUOGWKHRUL]LQJDQGPHWKRGRORJ\

2.1 Effects of Dilferenl Educational Systems :KDWDUHWKH HIIHFWV ZKHQ DQ HGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPLV LPSODQWHG LQWRDQRWKHUFXOWXUH"7KHH[SRUWRI:HVW HUQW\SHVFKRROLQJLQWRWUDGLWLRQDOVRFLHWLHV LVRIWHQ FULWLFL]HG EHFDXVHRILWVODFNRIFXOWXUDOUHOHYDQFHDQG SUDFWLFDOXVH-XOLXV1\HUHUHDIRUPHU3UHVLGHQW RI7DQ]DQLDDQG DOVRD WHDFKHUZDV RQHRIWKHILUVW

FULWLFV6HUSHOODQG+DWDQRSURYLGH H[FHOOHQW FRYHUDJHRIWKHLQSRUWDWLRQRI:HVWHUQW\SHVFKRROLQJ GXULQJFRORQLDOWLPHVLQ ZKDWWKH\FDOOKHJHPRQLF LPSRVLWLRQDQG VXPPDUL]HWKH SUHVHQWVLWXDWLRQIRU

$IULFD7KHHQWLUHGHVLJQRISXEOLFVFKRROLQJLQ$IULFD WHQGV WR EHDUYHU\OLWWOH UHOHYDQFHWRWKH GHPDQGVRI HFRQRPLFDOO\ SURGXFWLYH DGXOW OLIH LQ UXUDO VHWWLQJV ZKHUH WKHYDVWPDMRULW\ RIVFKRROOHDYHUVZLOOVSHQG WKHLUOLYHVS

>QFRQWUDVW.DJLWLEDVLSRLQWVRXWWKHPDQ\

SRVLWLYHHIIHFWVRIVFKRROLQJQRWDEO\LQWHUPVRIKHDOWK SURPRWLRQDQGZRPHQVULJKWVDQGLV FRQFHUQHGWKDW FULWLTXHVRIVFKRROLQJPD\LPSHGHWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RISROLFLHV WRDWWDLQWKH81(6&2JRDORIHGXFDWLRQ IRUDOO

(IIHFWV RIIRUPDO DQGLQIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQ DUHGLIIL FXOW WR GLVHQWDQJOH VLQFH ERWK LQWHUDFW 6RPH WLPHVFXPXODWLYHHIIHFWV RQOHDUQLQJFDQEHREVHUYHG ZKHQWKHHGXFDWLRQDO JRDOV RIIDPLO\DQG VFKRROILW WRJHWKHU 7KLV PD\ EHRQH UHDVRQ IRU WKH KLJKHU DFKLHYHPHQWRI$VLDQDVFRPSDUHGZLWK1RUWK$PHU LFDQVWXGHQWV6WHYHQVRQ)RUH[DPSOHLQ-DSDQ DQG.RUHDWHDFKHUV DQG PRWKHUVVKDUH WKHVDPH HGXFDWLRQDO YDOXHV DQG FRRUGLQDWH LQIRUPDO DQG IRUPDOHGXFDWLRQ

7UDQVIHURIHGXFDWLRQEHWZHHQ GLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WVLV HDVLHU ZKHQ WKH VDPH JRDOV DUH IXQFWLRQDO )RU H[DPSOHWKH WUDGLWLRQDO 4XUDQLFHGXFDWLRQDWWHPSWV WR WUDLQPHPRUL]LQJE\ WHDFKLQJIL[HGIRUPXODV WKXV SURYLGLQJ HOHPHQWV RIVRFLDO DQG FRJQLWLYH VNLOOV UHTXLUHG E\ PRGHUQVFKRROLQJ:DJQHU

1HJDWLYH HIIHFWVRQOHDUQLQJRFFXULQ WKHFDVH RI FRQIOLFWLQJRUQRQPDWFKLQJHGXFDWLRQDOJRDOVHJLQ WKHFDVH RILQYROXQWDU\DFFXOWXUDWLRQ ZKHQ FKLOGUHQ IURPDPLQRULW\JURXSDWWHQGDPDMRULW\JURXSVFKRRO 7KH DWWDLQPHQWRI FHUWDLQ HGXFDWLRQDO JRDOV HJ DFFXOWXUDWLRQDFKLHYHPHQW SURILWV IURP WKH FRRU GLQDWLRQ RILQIRUPDODQGIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQE\ FXPX ODWLQJWKHLUIXQFWLRQDO SURSHUWLHV

7KHHIIHFWVRIIRUPDO RULQIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQRUWKHLU FRPELQDWLRQGLIIHUDFFRUGLQJWR GHYHORSPHQWDODJH DQG GHSHQGRQWKH SHUVRQWKH HQYLURQPHQWDO FRQ GLWLRQVDQGWKHDGDSWLYHIXQFWLRQRIWKHVSHFLILFVNLOO

$FFRUGLQJWRVWXGLHVE\ :DJQHUDQG6SUDWW ODQJXDJH EDFNJURXQGDQGSUHVFKRROH[SHULHQFHKDYH GLIIHUHQWHIIHFWVRQWKHUHDGLQJDFTXLVLWLRQRIUXUDODQG XUEDQ0RURFFDQFKLOGUHQLQ WKHILUVW\HDURISULPDU\

VFKRRO0RGHUQDQGWUDGLWLRQDOSUHVFKRROLQJ QHHG QRWGLWOHUZLWKUHVSHFWWRKLJKHUOHYHOUHDGLQJPHDVXUHV 7KH WUDGLWLRQDO 4XUDQLF SUHVFKRRO FDQ EH EHQHILFLDO IRUOLWHUDF\DFTXLVLWLRQLQ$UDELF+RZHYHUGLWOHUHQFHV LQ OLWHUDF\ EHWZHHQ XUEDQ DQG UXUDO RU $UDELF VSHDNLQJ DQG%HUEHUVSHDNLQJFKLOGUHQLQ 0RURFFR FDXVHGE\PDWHUQDOODQJXDJHDQGSUHVFKRROLQJFRXOG QRWEHHOLPLQDWHGE\ PDLQVWUHDPLQJPRGHUQSULPDU\

VFKRROV7KH HIIHFWVRIDQXUEDQ HQYLURQPHQWZHUH ORQJHUODVWLQJWKDQWKRVHRIODQJXDJHEDFNJURXQGDQG SUHVFKRROH[SHULHQFH7KHVHVWXGLHV DUHUHOHYDQWIRU DQDO\]LQJHIIHFWVRIPXOWLFXOWXUDOHGXFDWLRQ

)RUPDOVFKRROLQJFDQLQIOXHQFHJHQHUDODQGGRPDLQ VSHFLILFVNLOOVHJ OLWHUDF\ORJLFDO WKLQNLQJ 6WXGLHV RQ4XUDQLFVFKRROHGDGXOWVLQ/LEHULDZKLFKLVRODWHWKH HIIHFWV RIVFKRROLQJDQGOLWHUDF\VKRZWKDW OLWHUDF\

LQFUHDVHV VSHFLILF PHPRU\VNLOOVEXWFDQEHDFTXLUHG ZLWKRXW:HVWHUQVFKRROLQJ6FULEQHUDQG&ROH )RUPDOVFKRROLQJFDQSURILWIURPLQIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQ LQ FRQWH[WV ZKLFK KDYH SUDFWLFDO VLJQLILFDQFH IRU DULWKPHWLFVNLOOV+RZHYHULQIRUPDOO\DFTXLUHGDULWK PHWLF VNLOOV LQ FRPSDULVRQ WRVFKRROEDVHG DOJRU LWKPVKDYHWKHLU OLPLWVIRUDUHYLHZVHH6HJDOOHW DW

2.2 International Comparison of School Achievement

)RUPDOVFKRROLQJXVXDOO\IROORZVWKH:HVWHUQPRGHO JLYLQJSUHIHUHQFHWRVXFKFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVWKDWIDFLOLWDWH VXFFHVVLQKLJKO\WHFKQRORJLFDODQGVFLHQWLILFDOO\VWUXF WXUHGHQYLURQPHQWV

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

*HUPDQ\$XVWULDVLJQLILFDQW GLIIHUHQFHVRFFXUUHG

&RPSDULVRQV RIPDWKHPDWLFDODFKLHYHPHQWGHPRQ VWUDWH VLJQLILFDQWO\KLJKHUDFKLHYHPHQW RI-DSDQHVH DQG7DLZDQHVHDV FRPSDUHG ZLWK1RUWK $PHULFDQ FKLOGUHQ6WHYHQVRQDQG6WLJOHU+LJKDFKLHYLQJ VWXGHQWV IURP $VLD DV FRPSDUHG ZLWK*HUPDQ\DQG 1RUWK $PHULFDVKRZEHWWHUPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUP DQFH7KHWHVWVFRUHVRI&KLQHVHDQG-DSDQHVHVWXGHQWV LQ PDWKHPDWLFVDQGVFLHQFH DUHKLJKHUWKDQ WKRVHRI WKHLU$PHULFDQSHHUVDWDOODJHJURXSV6WHYHQVRQHWDW

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

3. Outlook

$Q LQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURIVWXGLHVLQFOXGHFXOWXUHLQ HGXFDWLRQDOUHVHDUFK+RZHYHU V\VWHPDWLFFRPSDUL VRQV DUHUDUH $OVRUHVXOWV RQHIIHFWVRIFXOWXUHDQG HGXFDWLRQDUHQRWFRQVLVWHQW7KLVLVUHODWHGWRVHYHUDO SUREOHPV

2QHSUREOHP OLHV LQ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH IRFXVRI UHVHDUFKZDVRQHLWKHULQIRUPDORUIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQDV separate settings LJQRULQJ WKHLUVSHFLILF DQG SRVVLEO\

FXPXODWLYH HIIHFWV6FKRRO TXDOLW\ IDPLO\DQG SHHU JURXSVLQWHUDFW LQ YDULRXVZD\VGHSHQGLQJRQWKH FXOWXUDO FRQWH[W WKXV DIIHFWLQJ GHYHORSPHQW DQG OHDUQLQJ&KDPRX[

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

(GXFDWLRQUHVHDUFKQHHGVDVROLGWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPH

$QHFRFXOWXUDODSSURDFKVHHPVSURPLVLQJVLQFHLW UHODWHVFXOWXUDOFRQGLWLRQVWRHGXFDWLRQDODQGSV\FKR ORJLFDOSURFHVVHV2QHEDVLFDVVXPSWLRQLV WKDWLQWKH FDVHWKDWHGXFDWLRQDOJRDOVDQGSUDFWLFHVDUH UHOHYDQW LQDFXOWXUHRQHFDQH[SHFWTXDOLILHGGHYHORSPHQWRI UHODWHGVNLOOV )RUH[DPSOHLQ KXQWLQJDV FRPSDUHG ZLWKDJULFXOWXUDOVRFLHWLHVVSDWLDOVNLOOVDUHQHHGHGIRU VXUYLYDOWKH\ DUH PRUHYDOXHG DQGPRUHHIILFLHQWO\

OHDUQHG ,QVRPHFXOWXUHVKROLVWLFUDWKHUWKDQDQDO\WLF SUREOHPVROYLQJDQG JURXS GLVFXVVLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ LQGLYLGXDOUHIOHFWLRQDUHYDOXHGHGXFDWLRQDOJRDOVDUH GHILQHGDFFRUGLQJO\IRU DUHYLHZ VHH6HUSH?O DQG +DWDQR&RPSDUDWLYHUHVHDUFKRQLQWHOOLJHQFHLV DQRWKHUH[DPSOHRIKRZWKHFXOWXUHVSHFLILFPHDQLQJ ZDVFODULILHGIRUDUHYLHZVHH%HUU\&RQFHLYLQJ LQWHOOLJHQFHDVWKHDGDSWDWLRQ RIPHQWDODFWLYLWLHVWR WKHHQYLURQPHQWUHTXLUHVFXOWXUHVSHFLILFPHDVXUHVRI

LQWHOOLJHQWDFWLRQDQGDSSURSULDWHHGXFDWLRQDO FRQ GLWLRQVIRULWVGHYHORSPHQW

$QHFRFXOWXUDO DSSURDFKVWDUWVIURP WKHLQVLGHUV XQGHUVWDQGLQJDQG VSHFLILHVZKDW KDVWR EHDFFRPS OLVKHGLQYDULRXVGRPDLQVRIEHKDYLRULQRUGHUWROLYH LQD FHUWDLQFXOWXUDOFRQWH[W 7KLVDOORZV RQHWR OLQN FXOWXUDOFRQWH[WDQG FRJQLWLYHVNLOOVDQG WRVWXG\

LQGLJHQRXVDFWLRQVDVSDUWRIWKHUHVSHFWLYHFXOWXUHDQG DVDQLQGLFDWRURISUDFWLFDO LQWHOOLJHQFH$SUDFWLFH WKHRU\RIFXOWXUHDQGFRJQLWLRQ DWWHPSWVWRDQD O\]H HGXFDWLRQDO SURFHVVHV DIIHFWLQJFRJQLWLYH VNLOOV :DJQHUDQG6SUDWW5HODWHGUHVHDUFKRQHYHU\

GD\FRJQLWLRQIROORZV WKHVRFLRKLVWRULFDO DSSURDFK URRWHGLQ 9\JRWVN\VZULWLQJVIRUDUHYLHZVHH6HJDOO

HWDO

7KHVHDSSURDFKHV DUH OLQNHG WR WKH WKHRUHWLFDO IUDPHZRUN RIWKH GHYHORSPHQWDO QLFKH SURSRVHG E\

6XSHUDQG+DUNQHVV ZKRDVVXPH WKDW WKUHH VXEV\VWHPVVXUURXQGWKHFKLOGWKHSK\VLFDODQGVRFLDO FRQWH[WVLQ ZKLFK WKH FKLOG OLYHV WKHFXOWXUDO HGX FDWLRQDOSUDFWLFHV DQG WKH SV\FKRORJLFDOFKDUDFWHU LVWLFVRIWKHFDUHWDNHULQFOXGLQJWKHLUHWKQRWKHRULHV 7KH GHYHORSPHQWDO QLFKHDGDSWVWRVRFLDOFKDQJH DQGWKXVDOORZVIRUDGDSWDWLRQRQWKHLQGLYLGXDOOHYHO LQFOXGLQJDFFXOWXUDWLRQ 7KLV WKHRUL]LQJ LVUHODWHG WR

%URQIHQEUHQQHUVZRUN DQGWKHHFRFXOWXUDOIUDPH ZRUNVXJJHVWHGE\ 6HJDOOHWDO

7KHVHWKHRUHWLFDODSSURDFKHVDVVXPHWKDWHGXFDWLRQ LV OLQNHGWRWKHJLYHQFRQWH[WZKLFKSURYLGHVFRQ VWUDLQWVDQG UHVRXUFHVIRU OHDUQLQJDQG GHYHORSPHQW 7KLV QHHGVIXUWKHU HPSLULFDO WHVWLQJ2QFHD VROLG WKHRU\KDVEHHQGHYHORSHGSUREOHPVRIPHDVXUHPHQW DQGWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIHGXFDWLRQUHVHDUFKZLOOEHPRUH HDVLO\VROYHG

See also: $PHULFDQ 6WXGLHV (GXFDWLRQ $SSUHQ WLFHVKLSDQG6FKRRO/HDUQLQJ&RPSDUDWLYH5HVHDUFK LQ (GXFDWLRQ O($ 6WXGLHV &RPSDUDWLYH 6WXGLHV 0HWKRG DQG 'HVLJQ &URVVFXOWXUDO 3V\FKRORJ\

&URVVFXOWXUDO5HVHDUFK0HWKRGV&XOWXUDO'LYHUVLW\

+XPDQ 'HYHORSPHQW DQG (GXFDWLRQ (GXFDWLRQ

&XOWXUDODQG 5HOLJLRXV &RQFHSWV/DWLQ $PHULFDQ 6WXGLHV(GXFDWLRQ 6RYLHW6WXGLHV(GXFDWLRQ

Bihliography

%DXPHUW- QWHUQDWLRQDOH6FKXOOHLVWXQJVYHUJOHLFKH,Q5RVW ' +HGHandll'iir/eriJuch Piidagogische Psychologie, %HOW]

:HLQKHLP*HUPDQ\SS

%HUU\-:7RZDUGDXQLYHUVDOSV\FKRORJ\RIFRJQLWLYH FRPSHWHQFHIlIIema/ional Journal of P!iychology

%UXQHU- The Cullure of Educarion. +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\

3UHVV&DPEULGJH0$

&KDPRX[ 0 1 $SSUHQGUH DXWUHPHQW $VSHFWV GHV SHGDJRJLHVGLWHVLQIRUPHOOHVFKH]OHV ,QGLHQVGX0H[LTXH,Q 5RVVHO 3HGDemain l'Arlisanol? 3UHVVHV 8QLYHUVLWDLUHVGH )UDQFH 3DULVSS

'HOERV*-RULRQ 3 La Transmission des Savoirs. 0DLVRQ GHV6FLHQFHVGH,+RPPH3DULV

'HVDOPDQG 3 Histoire de (Edllea/ioll ell Cv/l' d'lmire.

&('$$ELGMDQ,YRU\&RDVW9R,

*UHHQILHOG 3 /DYH - &RJQLWLYHDVSHFWV RILQIRUPDO HGXFDWLRQ,Q:DJQHU '$ 6WHYHQVRQ + :HGVCul/ural Perspeclil'es un Child Del'elopmen/. )UHHPDQ6DQ)UDQFLVFR

SS

.DJLWLEDVL& Family and Human Developl11f!n/ Across Cul/url's: A Viello!i'om/he Other Side. (UOEDXP+LOOVGDOH1- .RUQDGW+-(FNHQVEHUJHU/+(PPLQJKDXV: %&URVV FXOWXUDOUHVHDUFKRQ PRWLYDWLRQDQG LWVFRQWULEXWLRQ WR D JHQHUDOWKHRU\ RIPRWLYDWLRQ,Q7ULDQGLV+&/RQQHU: HGVHamlhook

0/

.RUQDGW +-7URPPVGRUII*&URVVFXOWXUDODSSURDFKHV WRKXPDQGHYHORSPHQ/OQ'H&RUWH(:HLQHUW)(HGVThe EnC)'clopedia of' Developmental and In!i/ruc/ional PsychologJ;.

3HUJDPRQ2[IRUGSS

1\HUHUH - 0 Education L-OSelrreliallce. *RYHUQPHQW 3ULQWHU'DUHV6DODDP7DQ]DQLD

5RJRIU %0LVWU\ -*QFLL$ 0RVLHU& *XLGHGSDU WLFLSDWLRQLQFXOWXUDO DFWLYLW\E\WRGGOHUV DQGFDUHJLYHUV Monographs oOhl! Society/br Resl!arch in Child Devf!lopmel1/

1R6HULDO 1R

6FULEQHU6&ROH0The P.lychology

0/

6HJDOO 0 +'XVHQ35%HUU\- :3RRUWLQJD< + Humall Behal!ior in Glohal Perspec/iL'e: An IlIIrodUClion TO Cross- cul/ural Psychology, QGHGQ $OO\QDQG%DFRQ%RVWRQ 6HUSHOO5+DWDQR*(GXFDWLRQVFKRROLQJDQGOLWHUDF\,Q

%HUU\- :'DVHQ 356DUDVZDWKL 76HGVHandbook of CruS!i-('ul/ural Psychology: Vol. Basic Processes and Human Del'elopmen/, QGHGQ $OO\QDQG %DFRQ%RVWRQSS 6WHYHQVRQ + : &XOWXUHDQG VFKRROLQJ ,QIOXHQFHVRQ FRJQLWLYHGHYHORSPHQW,Q+HWKHULQJWRQ(0/HUQHU50 3HUOPXWWHU0HGVChild Del'elopmenl in Life-span Per-

!ipl!cTil'e. (UOEDXP+LOOVGDOH1-SS

6WHYHQVRQ+ :&KHQ&/HH6< 0DWKHPDWLFV DFKLHYH PHQWRI&KLQHVH-DSDQHVHDQG$PHULFDQFKLOGUHQ7HQ\HDUV ODWHUScience

6WHYHQVRQ+:6WLJOHU- : The Learning Gap: Why Our Schools are Failing and What We Can Leamfrom Japanese and Chinese EducaTion. 6XPPLW%RRNV1HZ<RUN

6XSHU&0 +DUNQHVV6 7KHFXOWXUDOVWUXFWXULQJRIFKLOG GHYHORSPHQW ,Q%HUU\- :'DVHQ356DUDVZDWKL76HGV Handbook 0/ Cross-cul/ural Psychology: Vol. Basic Pro- cesses and Human Del'l!lopmenl, QG HGQ$OO\QDQG%DFRQ

%RVWRQSS

7URPPVGRUII**HUPDQ FURVVFXOWXUDO SV\FKRORJ\Ger- man Journal of Psychologl'

:DJQHU'$$SSURSULDWHHGXFDWLRQDQGOLWHUDF\LQWKH 7KLUG :RUOG,Q'DVHQ 35%HUU\-:6DUWRULXV1HGV HealTh and Cross-cul/ural Psycholo!{J': Toward Applica/ions.

6DJH1HZEXU\3DUN&$SS

:DJQHU '$6SUDW-( &RJQLWLYHFRQVHTXHQFHVRI FRQWUDVWLQJSHGDJRJLHV7KHHIUHFWVRI4XUDQLFSUHVFKRROLQJLQ 0RURFFRChild De!'elopl1ll!lI/

:HLQHUW )( 3HUQHU - &RJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQW ,Q 0DJQXVVRQ'FGThe Ufl!span Dl'1'e/opmI!1I1 0(' Individuals:

Behavioral, Nl'uro/Jiologim/. and Psychosocial Perspectives.

&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV1HZ <RUNSS

*7URPPVGRUIIDQG3'DVHQ