Spatial transport and mobility dimension

need to be taken into account in the planning and design of high density and compact structures. For instance, issues such as visibility from the neighbouring buildings are important factors to be integrated in urban development plans.

In terms of social norms and behavioural factors, a number of studies (Becker et al, 1981; Brandon and Lewis, 1999) indicate that environmental beliefs and/or socially responsible attitudes do not significantly influence energy consumption. Monetary savings, for instance, seem to be better motivators for energy saving. Elizabeth Shove (2003) finds that routine consumption is controlled to a large extent by social norms and is profoundly shaped by cultural and economic factors. She argues that current

consumption patterns reflect that we generally remain unaware of routines and habits, particularly when it comes to energy and water consumption.

seven different studies, and demonstrate that soft policy measures may reduce traffic intensity by between 4 and 26 percent.

Table 4. Demand management policies and solutions for vehicle congestion

Demand management

Smart mobility

Personal travel mitigation

Walk/bike lifestyles

Collaborative mobility

Travel alternatives

 Alternative hours of travel

Alternative work schedule

Telecommuting/e-commerce

Pedestrian/bicycle facilities

 Alternative fare strategies

 Public education campaigns

Land use

Smart growth policies

Promotion of pedestrians/bicycle connections

Transit stop/station design

 Transit oriented design

 Parking strategies

Pricing

High occupancy toll lanes

Time of day pricing

 Activity centre pricing

 Parking pricing

High-occupancy vehicles

Rideshare matching/van-pools

Priority parking for HOVs

Parking cash-out

 Collaborative car sharing

Transit

Subsidized fares

Transit oriented design

Trip itinerary planning

 Transit security systems Freight

Truck-only toll lanes

Lane restrictions

Delivery restrictions Source. US FHWA, 2005

With regards to energy consumption in the transport sector, policy goals include the adoption of measures for increasing accessibility, the affordable provision of urban mobility services as well as promoting infrastructure that facilitates the widespread use of non-motorized options. Cities can be planned to be more compact with less urban sprawl and a greater mix of land uses and strategic sitting/placement of basic services to improve logistics and reduce the distances for passengers and goods. To this

background, urban form and street design and layout can facilitate walking, cycling, and their integration within a network of public transport modes.

Studies on the interrelations between urban form and travel behaviour include a number of urban concepts ranging from the compact city stressing the merits of urban

containment Breheny, : to decentralisation referring to all forms of population growth taking place away from existing urban centres Breheny, : . In other words, urban form not only shapes mobility, mobility also shapes urban form.

Besides the impact of urban form on mobility, the competitive public transport systems

and accompanying policies could induce reductions in energy use (induced by massive private vehicle use). Næss (2006) recognises the need for integrated transport related measures in urban planning accompanied by instruments to achieve significant changes.

Likewise, public transport needs to be accompanied by land use and transport planning to restrict car use and direct development towards transit nodes (Anderson, Kanaroglou

& Miller, 1996).

It is difficult to clearly verify the relationship between urban structure and travel

behaviour. Some critics even consider it as weak or uncertain , due to the importance of socio-economic factors and people s attitudes Næss & Jensen, . Breheny , for instance, considers the present high mobility levels as a relevant obstacle to induce significant changes in travel patterns through changes in urban form. Certainly, socio-economic factors influence the effectiveness of energy efficient urban structures. But the consideration of socio-economic factors implies also the potential to carry out

customised and, thereby, effective energy policies (Stead & Marshall, 2001; Stead, Williams & Titheridge, 2004).

Transport policy should emphasize on modes that are less energy-intensive, both for passenger and freight transport. In cities, change inducement works through a

combination of push and pull measures, in particular, traffic-demand management can induce shifts from cars to public transit and cycling. Yet another mean is to promote non-motorized transportation, as there is wide agreement about its benefits to transportation and people s health. Parking policies, extensive carpooling and car sharing, combined with information technology, are key measures to reduce the use of cars. When transport choices are made, efficient road-capacity utilization, energy use and infrastructure costs for different modes should be juxtaposed (GEA, 2012).

Based on a holistic approach, energy-efficient transportation needs to be encouraged on three different levels: 1) individual vehicles (vehicle efficiency), 2) trips and commuting (travel efficiency) and the 3) transport system as a whole (system efficiency) (Böhler-Baedeker & Hüging, 2012). Two of the above mentioned dimensions are amenable to shifts through urban planning policies and are thus considered relevant to this research.

These include system efficiency and travel efficiency .

Figure 20. The energy efficiency targets in urban transport system

Source. Böhler-Baedeker & Hüging, 2012 A. System efficiency: strategies for reduction and avoidance

At the most general level, system efficiency relates to how and what kind of demand for transport (i.e. different modes of transport) is generated. Research has shown that infrastructure and city structures influence transport demand. Energy consumption per capita rises proportionally as city density drops (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989). The reduction in traffic volume is a crucial aspect of energy efficient transport. Land-use planning should therefore optimize the positioning of settlement and production structures to avoid traffic and reduce travel distances.

A dense urban structure with mixed uses is essential for a high system efficiency. It involves shorter travel distances and a model shift from road transport (high space consumption) to more efficient transport modes such as walking, cycling and public transport. The prerequisites for system efficiency do not only include a dense city system, but also proper management of the demand for transport and an adequate public transportation network (Böhler-Baedeker & Hüging, 2012). In order to reduce private motorized mobility, accessibility by walking, biking and public transport should be a priority. The location of residential and public facilities (e.g. schools and health facilities) together with supply qualities of public transport are the most important criteria in reducing the demand for car transport (Stoeglehner et al, 2016).

B. Travel efficiency: strategy for model shift

Travel efficiency relates to the energy consumption of different transportation modes.

The main parameters of travel efficiency are the relative preponderance of the different transport modes (modal split) and the load factor of the vehicles. Energy consumption

Energy Efficiency in transport sector

System efficiency

Travel efficiency

Vehicle efficiency

Organize land use, social and economic activities in such a

way that the need for transport and the use of fossil

fuels is reduced

Make use of energy-efficient modes like public transport and non-motorized modes to

reduce energy consumption per trip

Consuming as little energy as possible per vehicle kilometre by using advanced technologies

and fuels and by optimizing ve-hicle operation

Reduce or avoid travel or the need to travel

Shift to more energy efficient modes

Improve the efficiency through ve-hicle technology

AVOID/REDUCE SHIFT IMPROVE

per passenger-kilometre varies between different modes of transport. An effective way of enhancing energy efficiency is to encourage travellers to use more efficient forms of transport, such as public transport and non-motorized vehicles. In general, private motorized modes of transport run on fuel and are much less energy-efficient than public transport. Travel using private motorized transport needs to be reduced, while the share of non-motorized and public transport must be increased. Increasing the share of public transport will lead to higher rates of occupancy in buses and trains, which will further increase the energy efficiency of public transportation (Böhler-Baedeker & Hüging, 2012). In general, mobility concepts that take the intermodal transport into account would provide a valuable input for integrated spatial and energy plans (Stoeglehner et al, 2016). Table 5 provides an overview of strategies for enhancing energy efficiency in urban transport.

Table 5. Strategies for enhancing energy efficiency in urban transport

Measures Solutions

Expanding the role of public transport

 Improvements in the public transport system (increasing the attractively, accessibility and reliability)

 Enhancing the frequency of services and improving its operation Enabling

inter-modality

 Easy switch from private cars to public transport (i.e. providing park and ride facilities)

 High connectivity between public transport and non-motorized modes

 Adequate pedestrian and cycling infrastructure

Pedestrian and bicycle-friendly infrastructure

 Creation of continuous cycle network, possibly featuring separate bicycle lanes or even so-called cycle highways

 Shared bicycle services, which provide free or low-cost bicycles for public use

 Sufficient bicycle parking facilities

 Provision of safe sidewalks and pedestrians crossings

 Restricted vehicle access to create pedestrian zones

System management

 Measures that reduce the speed or the quantity of motorized vehicles travelling in the city (i.e. license plate restriction concept)

 Creating environmental zones

 Speed restrictions

 Parking supply restrictions

Land use planning

 Smart land use policies could be designed to minimize the need for travel and reduce people s dependency on cars for transportation

 Mixed land use

 The density of built environment and functions

 Transit-oriented development (TOD)

 Reallocation of road space for the benefit of public transport or non-motorized modes of travel

 Maximum parking allowance Source. GIZ, 2011

2.3.3 Communication technologies and urban energy efficiency

Im Dokument Energy efficiency and design measures in social infrastructure planning (the case of Tehran) (Seite 53-58)