School-level factors

productivity) was significantly related to student outcomes. There is some indication that class-room climate also might influence student achievement indirectly, mediated by instructional quality and instructional time (Reynolds & Walberg, 1991).

Classroom- (and school-) climate will not only depend on the behavior and beliefs of the teacher. Of course, also the behavior of the students contributes to the climate; accordingly, student composition is important. Willms (1992, p. 41), for example, states that schools with high-ability or high-SES students have associated contextual advantages: “On average they are more likely to have greater support from parents, fewer disciplinary problems, and thus a cli-mate conducive for learning.” Supporting empirical evidence was found by Opdenakker, van Damme, Fraine, van Landeghem, and Onghena (2002), who found in their analysis of Flemish data that learning climate correlated with group composition, albeit sometimes showing addi-tional effects on achievement even after controlling for the composition effects.

of the school, and other contextual factors. Bossert, Dwyer, Rowan, and Lee (1982, p. 38) con-sequently conclude that “No single style of management seems appropriate for all schools. For example, reviews of the successful schools literature intimate that principals must find the style and structures most suited to their own local situation.”

However, certain characteristics of successful leadership are reported more consistently in the literature. According to the findings, leadership should be firm and purposeful, implying that the principal understands the school’s needs, is actively involved, and is the key agent in initi-ating change processes. Leadership also should be participative, meaning that successful prin-cipals share leadership with other members of the senior team or with teachers and involve their staff more generally in decision-making. The principal is also supposed to be the leading pro-fessional, implying his or her involvement in and knowledge about what goes on in the class-room, including the curriculum, teaching strategies and the monitoring of progress (Mortimore et al., 1988; Rutter et al., 1979; Sammons et al., 1995). As with most of the school factors, it is assumed here that the impact of principals on student outcomes will work rather indirectly “by influencing school and staff culture, attitudes and behavior which in turn, affect classroom prac-tices and the quality of teaching and learning” (Sammons et al., 1995, p. 22). The importance and shaping of effective leadership styles also seem to depend on the cultural context. For ex-ample, in their study about school effectiveness research in nine different countries, Reynolds, Teddlie, Stringfield, and Creemers (2002, p. 255) found that the effectiveness of a school de-pended more on the leadership of the principal in English-speaking countries, whereas this was less the case in the non-English speaking societies (Hong-Kong, Taiwan, The Netherlands, and Norway) in their study. According to Reynolds et al., the latter educational systems were so ordered and well-engineered that individual leadership characteristics mattered less than other system variables.

3.3.6.2 Productive School Climate and Culture

There is quite a body of research investigating school climate: a description for the general atmosphere of the school. School climate is often regarded as a factor that is partly malleable by the actions of the school leader, but also emerges from interactions between staff and stu-dents, and the students themselves (Scheerens, 2016, p. 89). The concept of school culture is similarly defined, but is based more on norms and values. Maslowski (2001, pp. 8–9) defines school culture as “the basic assumptions, norms and values, and cultural artefacts that are shared by school members, and which influence their functioning at school.” Factors reflecting school

climate and culture have emerged in virtually every review or study about school effectiveness research. Important factors relating to school climate and culture are detailed below.

Orderly atmosphere and a positive disciplinary climate

Many authors regard an orderly environment as an important precondition for effective learning (Levine & Lezotte, 1990; Mortimore et al., 1988; Sammons et al., 1995). It is easy to understand that teachers are not able to maintain student attention and engagement without an orderly en-vironment, and that lesson time most likely could not be efficiently used. TIMSS 2011 data (Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Arora, 2012) supports this notion. Over all participating countries, schools where principals reported “Moderate Problems” with school discipline and safety had, on average, 45 points (close to half a standard deviation) lower mathematics achievement in grade four than schools where discipline and safety were creating “Hardly any Problems”. Mar-tin and Mullis (2013) conducted a school effectiveness analysis based on 32 countries partici-pating in TIMSS and PIRLS in mathematics, science, and reading. They found that the factor schools are save and orderly was positively related with achievement in at least one subject in 15 countries, even after controlling for the home background. For the participating GCC coun-tries, significant associations emerged in Oman, Qatar, and in the United Arab Emirates for at least one subject, but not in Saudi Arabia.

Shared vision, staff cohesion, and collaboration

Schools have frequently proved to be more effective when staff are committed to a school-wide mission focused on academic improvement, and when a consensus is put into practice through consistent and collaborative ways of working and decision-making (Levine & Lezotte, 1990;

Sammons et al., 1995, p. 23). Rutter et al. (Rutter et al., 1979, p. 192) pointed out that the at-mosphere of any school “will be greatly influenced by the degree to which it functions as a coherent whole, with agreed ways of doing things…”. Several studies, reviews, and school im-provement programs have given empirical evidence that a consensus on values and goals, grounded in common and agreed-upon approaches to school life, is related to higher academic outcomes (Levine & Lezotte, 1990; Purkey & Smith, 1983; Rutter et al., 1979). Mortimore et al. (1988, p. 224), for example, found positive associations with school learning in schools where teachers followed consistent approaches in using school curriculum guidelines; Rutter et al. (1979, p. 121) reported that students are more likely to maintain guidelines of behavior if they understand that standards of discipline are based on “general expectations set by the school.”

Collegiality and collaboration between staff can be seen as important conditions for achieving the consensus and the implementation of common approaches described above (Sammons et al., 1995). For example, regular meetings of teachers may be helpful in improving cohesion and collaboration among teachers. Having a participative approach, including staff members in de-cision-making processes, and creating a sense of “ownership” is also regarded as important (Mortimore et al., 1988). There also needs to be some constancy in the staff composition over time: as Purkey and Smith (1983, p. 443) state, “Frequent transfers are destructive and likely to retard, if not prevent, the growth of a coherent and ongoing school personality.” Issues with staff constancy may be an important concern in the Gulf Area, potentially hindering the creation of a productive school climate and finally having some consequences on school learning. In the GCC countries, teacher attrition and a teacher turnover rate is generally high. Reasons given in the literature include that the teaching profession is seen as a low-status profession (Ridge, 2014, p. 135); consequently, national male teachers in particular seek out other employment activities or promotions as soon as possible. Conversely, the situation for expatriate teachers is difficult, as they usually earn lower wages and do not have the same rights as national teachers – a fact which, mediated by different personal, economic and sociocultural factors, again leads to high attrition rates (Demirjian, 2015; Ridge, 2014).

Teddlie & Reynolds provide a concise summary of the important factors needed for establishing and maintaining a good school culture:

The generation of a learning community amongst staff in which all members share good practice, act as critical friends and en-gage in a process of mutual education and re-education is clearly essential in the continuation of a positive school culture over time, as well as in its creation (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000, p. 148).

3.3.6.3 Concentration on teaching and learning

A focus on the importance of academic goals and processes and high academic emphasis has repeatedly been shown to exhibit correlations with school effectiveness. While many factors in this area may play an even more important role on classroom-level, the school – usually via policies, regulations, and priorities – often sets the standards and examples for classroom prac-tices.

Maximization of learning time, opportunity, and quality

A number of studies have shown positive relations between the maximization of learning time and student outcome measure. The number of instructional days per year, the length of a typical school day, and the time allocated to specific subjects are all linked to the concepts of time on tasks and opportunity to learn, considering that maximizing these variables will offer students more instructional time. However, not only is the amount of time available of importance, but also the quality. As stated by Carroll (1989, p. 27): “time as such is not what counts, but what happens during that time.” While the curriculum might be defined at a contextual level, schools may often set conditions for the implementation of the curriculum by setting preconditions with respect to the quality of instruction and the opportunity to learn. Creemers (1994) gave the following examples: setting rules about textbooks, curricular material, grouping procedures, and teacher behavior; implementation of an evaluation policy (for the quality of instruction);

and rules about the development of a school working plan, and how to follow the curriculum (for the opportunity to learn). A broader discussion on the concepts of time on task and oppor-tunity to learn can be found in sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.3, respectively.

Academic emphasis

An achievement-oriented school focusing on the mastery of academic content can contribute to student learning, as demonstrated in school effectiveness research (Levine & Lezotte, 1990;

Scheerens, 1992). However, Levine and Lezotte (1990, p. 14) cautioned that an emphasis on mastering central learning skills, in the absence of other effectiveness-enhancing factors, might not be successful – and rather should be “viewed as a building block antecedent to rather than a ‘guarantee’ of effectiveness.”

Martin and Mullis (2013) found in their school effectiveness analyses of TIMSS and PIRLS countries that the factor schools support academic success was positively related with achieve-ment in at least one subject in 10 out of 32 countries, even after controlling for the home back-ground. In the Gulf countries under consideration, schools’ support for academic success was a significant factor in at least one subject for Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emir-ates, but not for Qatar.

3.3.6.4 Parental involvement

Some scholars advocate for good home-school relations and for encouraging a stronger parental involvement of parents in children’s learning and school activities. However, present research

doesn’t point toward a common agreement on the level and type of involvement that would work best; accordingly, empirical findings are mixed. Purkey and Smith (1983), in their com-prehensive review of school effectiveness literature, found only a few studies where parental involvement was related to academic outcomes. Mortimore et al. (1988, p. 226), on the other hand, reported positive benefits in schools where parents helped in the classroom and with school trips, and where regular progress meetings were provided. It can be assumed that the effect of parental involvement depends on many different factors, such as the age of the child, the management and monitoring activities of the school in regard to the home-school relations, or the student composition in terms of socio-economic background of the families.

3.3.6.5 School resources

Resources at the school level would involve buildings, libraries, heating/cooling and lighting, and general instructional material, but also teacher-related resources, such as teacher salaries and the student-teacher ratio. While resource characteristics have often been studied as malle-able input varimalle-ables, empirical evidence is rather contradictory. There is some indication that favorable physical characteristics – such as the amount of light, fresh air, and an acceptable level of noise – are positively linked to educational outcomes (Chan, 1979; Scheerens, 1992);

Greenwald, Hedges, and Laine (1996) also concluded, based on their reanalysis of data from several education production functions, that certain school resources – such as school and class size, but even more the per-student expenditure – are positively related to achievement. In gen-eral, it seems plausible that a basic level of physical resources might be needed to successfully implement instruction, but that beyond certain thresholds better equipment, more space, and other physical resources would not contribute much more in regard to effective instruction. This could help explain the fact that school input variables indicate more significant positive relation to learning outcomes in developing countries. For example, Scheerens (2000), in his review of school effectiveness studies, reported that the availability of textbooks showed significant as-sociation with achievement in 19 out of 26 studies, and that the availability of a school library was significantly correlated with outcomes in 16 out of 18 studies. However, concerning the availability of certain facilities, such as libraries, gymnasia or computer laboratories, research-ers repeatedly pointed out the question of how the facilities are used is more crucial than their mere availability (Scheerens, 1992, p. 92). It can be concluded that physical resources on their own will probably not constitute an important effectiveness-enhancing factor, but that to a cer-tain extent, they might be a precondition for effective instruction, with perhaps greater im-portance in developing countries.

3.3.6.6 Other factors

Certain factors already described at the classroom level are more effective if they are an inte-grated part of the school culture, and thus consistently expressed or implemented on all levels.

In this sense, for example, high expectations would need to be part of a general culture in a school; consequently, high expectations for students would likely be associated with a staff group “who have themselves high expectations of what is possible from them to achieve from the principal or headteacher” (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000, p. 149). Similarly, the monitoring of student progress should be organized centrally, and accompanied by the implementation of a monitoring and evaluation system at the school level to better manage school institutions – which is also seen as a characteristic of an effective school (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000, p. 150).

Moreover, it is important that staff development becomes an integral part of school activities, and that there is a close synchronization of the school’s mission and priorities with the staff development activities (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000, p. 150).