9 RESULTS OF VARIABLE SELECTION AND FACTOR/ RELIABILITY ANALYSES
9.1 Results of the Preliminary Analyses Related to Gender and Nationality
Table 9-1: TIMSS 2015 average mathematics achievement by gender
Notes. Data summarized from Mullis, Martin et al. (2016) () Standard errors appear in parenthesis
Bars in dark color indicate statistically significant differences
Table 9-2: TIMSS 2015 average science achievement by gender
Notes. Data summarized from Martin, Mullis, Foy et al. (2016) () Standard errors appear in parenthesis
Bars in dark color indicate statistically significant differences
While Qatar and in the United Arab Emirates show no significant gender disparities in mathe-matics, in Saudi Arabia the differences reach 43 score points in favor of girls. In science, all GCC countries show significant gender differences in favor of girls; in general, the magnitude is larger, and even reaches up to 79 score points in Saudi Arabia. Thus, the average gender gap for science in the region amounts to more than twice that of mathematics. Outcomes from in-ternational assessments are in line with results from national examinations in the GCC coun-tries, where girls regularly outperform boys across all grades of schooling (Alkhateeb, 2001;
Egbert, 2012; Ministry of Education Oman & World Bank, 2012). Furthermore, the gender gap seems to exhibit quite early in schooling. The Omani Ministry of Education reported that al-ready in grade 1, when boys and girls are still co-educated, Omani teachers consistently assign higher ratings to girls in all evaluated subjects except sports (Ministry of Education Oman &
World Bank, 2012, p. 26).
Girls Scored
Higher Boys Scored Higher Bahrain 50 (0.7) 459 (1.7) 50 (0.7) 443 (2.3) 15 (2.5)
Kuwait 51 (2.0) 359 (5.4) 49 (2.0) 347 (5.6) 12 (6.2) Oman 50 (0.7) 436 (3.0) 50 (0.7) 415 (2.8) 22 (2.9) Qatar 51 (2.5) 440 (4.1) 49 (2.5) 438 (4.9) 3 (5.9) Saudi Arabia 49 (1.0) 405 (4.4) 51 (1.0) 363 (6.5) 43 (7.7) United Arab Emirates 48 (2.2) 453 (3.9) 52 (2.2) 450 (3.4) 3 (5.4) Gulf Average 50 (1.7) 426 (3.9) 50 (1.7) 409 (4.5) 16 (5.4) Int. Average 49 (0.2) 505 (0.5) 51 (0.2) 505 (0.5)
Percent of
Students Average Math Score Country
Girls Boys Difference
(Absolute Value)
Difference Percent of
Students Average Math Score
60 30 0 30 60
90 90
Girls Scored
Higher Boys Scored Higher Bahrain 50 (0.8) 478 (3.0) 50 (0.8) 439 (3.5) 39 (4.0)
Kuwait 51 (2.1) 352 (7.6) 49 (2.1) 322 (7.6) 30 (9.1) Oman 50 (0.7) 447 (3.4) 50 (0.7) 415 (3.6) 32 (3.1) Qatar 51 (2.5) 448 (4.7) 49 (2.5) 424 (6.0) 24 (7.2) Saudi Arabia 49 (1.0) 431 (5.3) 51 (1.0) 352 (7.6) 79 (9.0) United Arab Emirates 48 (2.2) 459 (4.4) 52 (2.2) 444 (4.0) 14 (6.4) Gulf Average 50 (1.7) 436 (5.0) 50 (1.7) 399 (5.7) 36 (6.8) Int. Average 49 (0.1) 508 (0.5) 51 (0.1) 504 (0.6)
Percent of
Students Average Science Score Country
Girls Boys Difference
(Absolute Value)
Difference Percent of
Students Average Science Score
60 30 0 30 60
90 90
Differences in terms of nationality status
While literature in this regard seems to be scarce, the different achievement level outcomes in TIMSS mathematics and science for nationals and non-nationals, as depicted in Table 9-3 and Table 9-4, suggest a relation with the very different living conditions for both sub-populations, which were discussed in section 2.1. The nationality status for the current study was defined by the father’s place of birth, as in the GCC countries only children born to a national father are automatically citizens of that country. In some GCC countries, children born to a stateless father and a mother with the nationality of the respective country are also usually citizens of that country (Albarazi, 2017).
Table 9-3: TIMSS 2015 average mathematics achievement by nationality status
Notes. Own calculations based on the information whether the father was born in country.
() Standard errors appear in parenthesis
Bars in dark color indicate statistically significant differences
Table 9-4: TIMSS 2015 average science achievement by nationality status
Notes. Own calculations based on the information whether the father was born in country.
() Standard errors appear in parenthesis
Bars in dark color indicate statistically significant differences
However, non-nationals in the region are rarely given citizenship (please refer to APPENDIX B for more details). The data shows that mathematics and science achievement is significantly higher for non-national students in all countries except Oman. For mathematics, significant differences range from 12 score points in Bahrain to 87 score points in the United Arab Emir-ates. The absolute differences in most countries are a bit higher yet for science, reaching up to
Nationals Scored
Higher Non-Nationals Scored Higher Bahrain 66 (0.9) 448 (1.3) 34 (0.9) 460 (4.3) 12 (4.6)
Kuwait 71 (1.8) 336 (3.8) 29 (1.8) 398 (8.6) 62 (7.5) Oman 83 (1.0) 427 (2.7) 17 (1.0) 420 (5.2) 7 (5.6) Qatar 42 (1.5) 396 (4.0) 58 (1.5) 473 (3.7) 77 (4.6) Saudi Arabia 87 (1.1) 379 (4.3) 13 (1.1) 419 (6.3) 40 (7.1) United Arab Emirates 37 (1.0) 398 (3.0) 63 (1.0) 486 (2.6) 87 (3.5) Gulf Average 65 (1.2) 397 (3.2) 35 (1.3) 442 (5.5) 47 (5.7)
Percent of
Students Average Math Score Country
Nationals Non-Nationals Difference
(Absolute Value)
Difference Percent of
Students Average Math Score
60 30 0 30 60
90 90
Nationals Scored
Higher Non-Nationals Scored Higher Bahrain 66 (0.9) 455 (2.9) 34 (0.9) 468 (5.3) 13 (6.1)
Kuwait 72 (1.8) 321 (5.5) 28 (1.8) 385 (11.1) 64 (9.4) Oman 83 (1.0) 432 (3.4) 17 (1.0) 429 (5.6) 4 (6.2) Qatar 42 (1.5) 389 (4.5) 58 (1.5) 474 (4.1) 86 (4.9) Saudi Arabia 87 (1.1) 385 (5.2) 13 (1.1) 432 (6.5) 47 (7.1) United Arab Emirates 37 (1.0) 384 (3.6) 63 (1.0) 494 (2.8) 110 (3.9) Gulf Average 65 (1.3) 394 (4.3) 35 (1.3) 447 (6.5) 54 (6.5)
Percent of
Students Average Science Score Country
Nationals Non-Nationals Difference
(Absolute Value)
Difference Percent of
Students Average Science Score
60 30 0 30 60
90 90
110 score points in the United Arab Emirates. The effects of nationality differences on the countries’ overall mathematics or science achievement heavily depend on the percentage of non-national students. While for example the country average in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates for mathematics is about the same (451 vs. 452 score points), we can see that the national populations in both countries differ by about score 50 points, in favor of Bahrain. The United Arab Emirates, on the other hand, has a far higher share of higher-achieving non-na-tionals, which outweighs the weaker performance of the nationals.
Gender by Nationality
Additionally, the question of whether gender differences are of equal magnitude for nationals and for non-nationals was explored. The results can be retrieved from Table 9-5 and Table 9-6.
Analyses distinguishing national and non-national populations, in terms of their gender gaps, showed a somewhat more differentiated picture: while for mathematics, gender differences for non-nationals are only significant for Saudi Arabia (27 score points), they are significant for all national populations except the United Arab Emirates. In science, where gender differences overall are higher, girls perform significantly better in all national populations, and in three of the immigrant populations. While beyond the scope of the current study, further research should be conducted to explore the interaction effects between nationality and gender variables in the region (for example, by means of an analysis of variance), given the importance of the variables and the large disparities in the region indicated by the data listed above.
Table 9-5: TIMSS 2015 average mathematics achievement by nationality status and gender
Notes. Own calculations
() Standard errors appear in parenthesis
Difference statistically significant (always in favor of girls)
Table 9-6: TIMSS 2015 average science achievement by nationality status and gender
Notes. Own calculations
() Standard errors appear in parenthesis
Difference statistically significant (always in favor of girls)
Achievement by school types
Table 9-7 and Table 9-8 list the average mathematics and science achievement of non-nationals and nationals in non-nationals-only schools, mixed schools, and national-only schools, respec-tively. The data shows that most of the nationals, and also the non-nationals, attend mixed schools. This is an interesting finding, as literature often reports on the difficulties faced by non-nationals in accessing public school systems in the GCC countries (see for example Ardent, 2015). Significant differences are marked in bold: for mathematics, analyses show that nation-als perform significantly better when being enrolled in national-only schools for Bahrain and Kuwait. A similar pattern can be seen in Bahrain and Qatar in science. In the United Arab Emirates, non-nationals perform significantly better in non-nationals-only schools.
Bahrain 437 (1.9) 458 (1.8) 21 ▲ 458 (6.5) 461 (3.5) 3
Kuwait 330 (5.4) 342 (4.4) 12 ▲ 392 (9.3) 404 (9.0) 12
Oman 415 (3.0) 440 (3.3) 25 ▲ 418 (6.0) 422 (6.1) 4
Qatar 388 (6.4) 404 (5.0) 16 ▲ 477 (5.3) 469 (4.7) 9
Saudi Arabia 358 (6.6) 402 (5.0) 43 ▲ 404 (9.3) 431 (7.4) 27 ▲ United Arab Emirates 392 (3.4) 404 (5.3) 12 485 (3.7) 486 (3.0) 1
Gulf Average 387 (4.8) 408 (4.3) 439 (7.0) 446 (6.0)
Boys Girls
Country
Nationals Difference
(Absolute Value)
Non-Nationals Difference (Absolute Value)
Boys Girls
Bahrain 433 (4.0) 478 (3.3) 44 ▲ 455 (7.3) 480 (5.3) 25 ▲
Kuwait 303 (7.5) 338 (6.9) 35 ▲ 378 (12.3) 393 (12.2) 15
Oman 414 (3.8) 451 (3.9) 37 ▲ 426 (7.2) 431 (5.9) 5
Qatar 367 (6.8) 409 (5.5) 43 ▲ 470 (6.3) 478 (6.0) 8
Saudi Arabia 346 (7.9) 427 (5.8) 81 ▲ 401 (10.1) 456 (7.1) 55 ▲ United Arab Emirates 371 (4.1) 398 (5.6) 27 ▲ 489 (4.0) 500 (3.3) 10 ▲
Gulf Average 372 (5.9) 417 (5.3) 437 (8.3) 457 (7.2)
Boys Girls
Country
Nationals Difference
(Absolute Value)
Non-Nationals Difference (Absolute Value)
Boys Girls
Table 9-7: TIMSS 2015 average mathematics achievement by type of school (mixed versus segregated in terms of immigrant status)
Notes. Own calculations
() Standard errors appear in parenthesis Significant differences are marked in bold
Table 9-8: TIMSS 2015 average science achievement by type of school (mixed versus segre-gated in terms of immigrant status)
Notes. Own calculations
() Standard errors appear in parenthesis Significant differences are marked in bold
Teachers’ Gender
Table 9-9 and Table 9-10 list the results for teacher gender in relation to single-sex and mixed-gender schools. We can see that children in single-sex schools are usually taught by teachers of their gender. In mixed schools, children are predominantly taught by female teachers. The data shows a heterogeneous pattern in terms of achievement associated with teacher gender, but percentages of male teachers in girls’ schools and vice versa are often quite low. For mathe-matics, only one significant relation with outcomes was found: in Saudi Arabia, where male teachers outperform female teachers by 48 score points in boys’ schools. For science, Kuwaiti female teachers significantly outperform male teachers in boys’ schools and in mixed schools.
Bahrain 4 (0.1) 454 (4.5) 91 (0.2) 446 (1.4) 96 (0.1) 460 (4.5) 9 (0.2) 462 (4.0)
Kuwait 4 (4.6) 368 (1.2) 91 (2.5) 338 (4.2) 96 (4.6) 399 (9.5) 9 (2.5) 313 (7.1)
Oman 17 (9.7) 415 (18.6) 74 (2.7) 427 (3.4) 83 (9.7) 421 (5.3) 26 (2.7) 427 (6.1) Qatar 6 (1.7) 503 (18.9) 96 (2.3) 395 (4.2) 94 (1.7) 471 (3.8) 4 (2.3) 415 (26.5)
Saudi Arabia 68 (3.6) 378 (5.3) 100 (0.0) 419 (6.3) 32 (3.6) 382 (8.5)
United Arab Emirates 18 (1.6) 520 (6.5) 95 (1.6) 398 (3.0) 82 (1.6) 478 (2.8) 5 (1.6) 402 (17.6) Gulf Average 10 (4.5) 452 (11.3) 86 (2.4) 397 (3.8) 92 (4.5) 441 (5.8) 14 (2.4) 400 (14.1)
Percent Score Percent
Country
Non-Nationals-Only Schools Mixed Schools Nationals-Only Schools
Non-Nationals Nationals Non-Nationals Nationals
Percent Score Percent Score Score
Bahrain 4 (0.1) 471 (8.3) 91 (0.2) 454 (3.0) 96 (0.1) 468 (5.5) 9 (0.2) 470 (6.7) Kuwait 4 (4.7) 376 (13.2) 91 (2.5) 322 (5.8) 96 (4.7) 385 (11.8) 9 (2.5) 313 (14.2) Oman 17 (9.7) 439 (18.6) 74 (2.7) 431 (4.2) 83 (9.7) 427 (5.9) 26 (2.7) 435 (7.6)
Qatar 6 (1.7) 509 (20.1) 96 (2.3) 388 (4.7) 94 (1.7) 472 (4.3) 4 (2.3) 412 (7.6)
Saudi Arabia 68 (3.6) 389 (6.2) 100 (0.0) 432 (6.5) 32 (3.6) 378 (10.3)
United Arab Emirates 18 (1.6) 538 (5.7) 95 (1.6) 384 (3.3) 82 (1.6) 485 (3.0) 5 (1.6) 390 (25.8) Gulf Average 10 (4.5) 466 (13.1) 86 (2.4) 395 (4.7) 92 (4.5) 445 (6.8) 14 (2.4) 400 (13.7)
Country
Non-Nationals-Only Schools Mixed Schools Nationals-Only Schools
Non-Nationals Nationals Non-Nationals Nationals
Percent Score Percent Score Percent Score Percent Score
Bahrain50(1.2)436(3.7)50(1.2)432(2.2)100(0.0)458(1.6)17(2.9)479(15.4)83(2.9)464(6.5) Kuwait16(4.5)319(18.6)84(4.5)333(6.1)100(0.0)348(6.8)17(5.6)435(24.0)83(5.6)392(14.7) Oman37(25.2)346(39.2)63(25.2)410(23.1)100(0.0)424(17.2)2(0.7)406(24.7)98(0.7)427(2.6) Qatar16(4.1)386(19.7)84(4.1)403(8.7)1(1.0)414(3.5)99(1.0)413(5.4)24(4.0)492(8.4)76(4.0)494(6.5) Saudi Arabia95(2.4)365(6.8)5(2.4)317(13.0)3(1.6)415(7.1)97(1.6)405(4.5) United Arab Emirates20(3.5)415(20.6)80(3.5)424(7.1)4(2.1)444(37.8)96(2.1)425(6.3)13(1.9)499(12.5)87(1.9)489(3.4) Gulf Average39(10.7)378(21.4)61(10.7)386(12.0)3(1.2)424(15.8)99(1.2)412(8.5)15(3.2)462(16.6)85(3.2)453(7.3)
ScorePercentPercentScorePercentScorePercent
Country
Boys SchoolsGirls SchoolsMixed Schools Male TeachersFemale TeachersMaleTeachersFemale TeachersMaleTeachers ScorePercentScore Female Teachers PercentScore
Table 9-9: TIMSS 2015 average mathematics achievement by teachers’ gender and school type (mixed versus single-sex) Notes. () Standard errors appear in parenthesis Statistically significant differences between male and female teachers are marked in bold Notes. () Standard errors appear in parenthesis Statistically significant differences between male and female teachers are marked in bold
Table 9-10: TIMSS 2015 average science achievement by teachers’ gender and school type (mixed versus single-sex) Bahrain49(1.3)437(5.7)51(1.3)432(4.0)2(1.2)410(40.1)98(1.2)481(3.3)18(3.2)485(18.1)82(3.2)459(8.4) Kuwait16(4.6)264(19.2)84(4.6)312(10.5)100(0.0)346(9.1)11(3.6)428(26.5)89(3.6)378(15.0) Oman14(15.2)338(6.7)86(15.2)359(33.7)100(0.0)417(14.6)2(0.6)399(25.6)98(0.6)433(3.2) Qatar13(3.4)388(15.4)87(3.4)383(11.0)1(0.8)399(3.1)99(0.8)423(5.9)20(4.6)476(13.1)80(4.6)491(6.4) Saudi Arabia95(1.6)350(7.6)5(1.6)383(31.6)3(0.8)399(26.9)97(0.8)432(5.5) United Arab Emirates17(3.3)383(24.2)83(3.3)417(9.0)2(0.9)372(54.9)98(0.9)425(7.8)9(1.9)519(12.1)91(1.9)498(4.1) Gulf Average34(6.8)360(14.9)66(6.8)381(20.2)2(0.8)395(29.9)99(0.8)421(8.5)12(2.8)461(18.3)88(2.8)452(7.8)
ScorePercentPercentScorePercentScorePercent
Country
Boys SchoolsGirls SchoolsMixed Schools Male TeachersFemale TeachersMaleTeachersFemale TeachersMaleTeachers ScorePercentScore Female Teachers PercentScore