Factors that have Governed Investigation Methods

Achieving the aims of the study, discussed in Chapte 5.1, requires necessarily, a high degree of judgement and intimate knowledge of the physical resources and agricultural characteristics of the projects’ regions. In addition, socio-economic survey is required to furnish the information necessary for the successful diagnosis and then applicable recommendations. Since the study is not only intended to identify and catch on the problems and their causes, but also, with more interest, to guide us to the possible solutions.

This approach is called Diagnostic Appraisal which described by CHAMBERS (1983) as

‘opportunity rather than problem oriented’ (LENTON 1986:52).¹⁵⁶

The quality of most available data, not just their quantity, is a major constraint on improving irrigation management. Thereby, it is quite known today, for researchers working in the third world’s irrigation schemes, that one vital source of difficulty in managing many systems is the lack of valid information on either water distribution or water requirements¹⁵⁷. That is why, the question which has been strongly raised in this critical phase of the study was, which social research method or combination of methods guarantees gaining such information? The answer has required examining the different approaches that have been used in similar areas and their imperial facts to avoid, within the bounds of possibility, the critique and strengthen, therefore, the effective sides for our two circumstances. The following considerations had, consequently, governed the methodology of the study:

− criticism directed to the Brief Rural Visit by ‘the urban-based professionals’

(spatial: visits near cities, the centers of villages, and neglect of peripheries; project:

where projects were being undertaken, often with special official attention and support; person: meeting men more than women, elites more than the poor, the users more than the non-users of services, and so on; seasonal: going in seasons which are often worse for rural people; and diplomatic) all these could combine to hide the worst situation (CHAMBERS 1992b:7);

156 In the field of irrigation management, the concept which the term „methodology“ embodies is according to LENTON (1986:48): „An irrigation management methodology comprises the generalizable practices, processes, techniques or approaches-not specific to any given irrigation system- employed by irrigation and other agencies and/or farmers to undertake a given irrigation management activity.“

157 In this view, then, it would make sense to separate definitions of information and data. SINGH (1988:358), distinguish the two terminologys in terms of their usability as follows: Data is facts and figures, lying in files, records and reports, which are not organized or processed in a manner that is meaningful to the manager. By contrast, Information consists of data that is properly classified and analysed such that they can be used by the manager for decision making.

− the disillusion with the normal processes of questionnaire surveys and their results.

As CHAMBERS (1992b:7,33) argued, the experience had been that questionnaire surveys tended to be: „long-drawn-out, tedious, a headache to administer, a nightmare to process and write up, inaccurate and unreliable in data obtained, leading to reports, if any, which were long, late, boring, misleading, difficult to use, and anyway ignored“, „the quality of its data is often so poor, that an improvement is not difficult to achieve“;

− the advantages emergent from ‘Indigenous Technical Knowledge’ (ITK) (rural people are themselves knowledgeable on many subjects which touched their lives);

− the new methods that have been emphasized in Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) such as direct observance and semi structured interviewing¹⁵⁸. This approach began to emerge in the late 1970s and gained increasing acceptance in the 1980s. It has argued that RRA is cost-effective, specially for gaining timely information and consider in many contexts and for many purposes, the best. In five empirical cases discussed by CHAMBERS (1992), the outcomes of the RRA approach, compared with the more formal questionnaire, were variously more valid, less costly, more timely, and more useful¹⁵⁹; and

− participation of the those concerned must not be only the base of managing irrigation systems, but also a vital factor of their related researches.

− finally, rural data presently obtainable in developing countries is, as MORIS/COPESTAKE (1993:6) argued, more likely to merit qualitative (informal) than quantitative (formal) treatment.

According to the above, the combination of social investigation methods adopted in this fieldwork, which had commenced on 17th November 1992 and continued until end-April 1993, had included:

• two structural questionnaires; one was directed at water-users, (contained 48 question) and the other (25 question) for the officials and the so-called ‘experts’ or key people (projects’ staff, specialists, researchers in Universities - Khartoum and Gezira; and Ministries - Agriculture and Irrigation; staff of other government departments¹⁶⁰; and numerous non-governmental organizations working in the area¹⁶¹).

158 FAO stresses the necessity to collect actual data through Rapid Appraisal field surveys and interviews with farmers (WALKER/CLEVERINAGA, 1989:Vol 2, M.XI.7:5)

159 He refers to BERNADAS’ (1991) who reports that in Eastern Visayas in the Philippines, highly structured questionnaire interviews identified declining soil fertility as the most pressing problem of farmers.

Bernadas explains that the staff themselves had formulated the questions and determined the areas on the basis of what they felt to be priorities. As a result, „two years of research based on the questionnaire survey findings did not match farmers need and circumstances, and the developed technologies were not adopted by them.“ Using an RRA approach led to the discovery that the most pressing problem facing farmers was not soil fertility but the long fallow due to the growth of a weed cotton). Another study on agroforstry in Kenya (ROCHELEAU et al. 1989) had also different results from applying the two methods; a chain of informal in-depth interviews and group interviews, compared with a survey of a formal randomized sample of 63 households (p.34-5).

160 Agricultural planning department in ministry of planning (Khartoum), Gezira scheme, health centers, and the Agricultural Bank New Halfa-Shendi.

161 The Co-operative Union, the Tenants Unions, private input/supply and exports firms, and traders.

• Furthermore, in the course of this field study, visits were made to the headquarters of Ministry of irrigation in Wad Medany and the head office of the Northern Agriculture Production Corporation NAPC in Ed Damer.

• Structure of the questionnaires, the checklist’s topics, and even the expressions used in the questions were latter revised after informal in-depth interviews with representatives of these different groups.

• In addition, other data/information gathering tools were applied, such as observations, and analysis of published and unpublished documents.

The interview schedule includes the following topics, that had been, latter, translated in details into single questions:

− social data (sex, age, education, primary and secondary occupation, and members of the family);

− general farm’s information ( location, ownership, and size);

− farmer’s cropping patterns and production’s data (yield, area cultivated, number of one’s own animal, property of agrarian machines, size of labor; family and paid labor, and problems of agriculture);

− farmer’s irrigation patterns and behaviors (field distribution, land leveling, irrigation interval, and duration);

− irrigation control¹⁶²;

− water distribution’s problems and causes (reliability and predictability);

− communication and linkages with project’s Administrations;

− the relationship between tenants as regards water distribution;

− conflicts: 1) between the irrigation administration and water users, and 2) between upstream and downstream water users;

− water user’s organizations;

− the role of supporting institutions (credit market, marketing); and

− water pricing system 5.3.2 Selection of the Samples

The approach pursued here take in consideration the nature of the two schemes. After studying the sampling frame (the complete lists/maps of the projects), and to get a representative sample to the vast schemes that represent the target population, as accurately as possible, a non-random approach had been used to choose the districts and villages.

Thereby, a cross-section of districts and tenants were selected with the help of the projects’

officials, experts, and Tenant Farmers’ Unions. The following factors had been taken in consideration:

− the different positions of districts in the projects;

− the irrigation situation; the location of the farm along the field water course and the position of the later relative to the distributry (head, middle and tail);

− the presence and follow up of the tenant in his farm (the degree of absenteeism); and

− the ethnical differentiation (in New Halfa Scheme).

162 FREEMAN (1989) defined irrigation control in terms of the appropriate application of water on the field.

LAYTON et al. (1994:294) also assuming this and defines it by the farmers’ ability to irrigate when they desired and in the amount they believed necessary.

By using simple random sampling, 60 tenant in New Halfa Scheme and 40 tenant in Gendettu Scheme, were interviewed. In addition, the sample of the key informants (officials) had comprised 44 persons.

In New Halfa, two Sections (five Blocks and thirteen villages) were selected as illustrated in figure 5.3. Concerning the ethnical distribution in the project, the sample was chosen proportionally according to stratified random approach i.e., two thirds of the sample nomads (in 7 villages) and the other third Halfawyeen (in 6 villages).

a) SHEIK OMER is the second biggest section in the scheme regarding area (19 595 feddan) and number of tenants (3920). It includes the two population groups; nomads (the majority) and halfawyeen (Fig. 5.3), and lie on the beginning of the scheme.

1- Abu Nagma: altogether, this Block has more irrigation problems than El Butana Block.

Throughout 1980s, because of water shortage, the three villages have cultivated only two rotation. Tenancies here are consider the very extreme example for the unleveled land in the Scheme.

Arab 5: all tenancies lie at the head,¹⁶³therefore, they have less irrigation problems. The presence of tenants is good.

Arab 6: the biggest village in the scheme; comprise 601 tenants.

Tenancies in the middle i.e., has more irrigation problems than Arab 5.

Arab 7: tenancies at the end. It means chronic irrigation problems.

2- El Butana: canals in this Block are more than the average by the others (9 compared with average 3-5) and well distributed. The sole problem here is the long of these canals, that extended from km.26 till km.33, and this require, therefore, more control. Two villages were chosen heir; Arab 2, and Arab3.

3- Argin: generally, this Block has no irrigation problem i.e., availability of water.

The more serious problem here, specially in villages 5 and 11, is the weak presence or follow up of the tenants. Exception here is village 13, which lie at the end. The tenants there use ‘pistols’ to guard their water during the night. In addition, because of the acute shortage of water, many tenancies are not cultivated and tenants from neighbor villages drain there. A big part of the command Area in this village is known as „the dead line.“

163 Head, middle and end refer heir to the location on the minor canal.

Fig. 5.3 Sample of New Halfa Scheme According to Section, Block and Villages

Source: Own Survey

b) The other selected Section, SASARAIB, contains also Arabs and Halfawyeen and lie on the middle and east of the scheme. It comprise 17 520 feddan and 3511 tenants. This Section is marked by long canals that have problems at the tail end, and have also easy irrigated places.

4- Alledaj: include the biggest village in the Nubian’s area - village 26 - which comprise 334 tenant and 4267 inhabitant. This village is good example for Halfawyeen who are firm connected with the tenancy, and is, in the same time, famous for high women’s participation in farm operations. Gereges is the Nomads’ equivalent village to village 26 concerning the link with the

‘soil’. Performance in sidira, on the other side, is middle and their tenancies lies on the end.

5- El Madina: village 24 represent irrigation problems in this Block because all tenancies lies on the end of long minor. Nevertheless, represent El Basawla the top performance among the project concerning the productivity, specially wheat.

Considering irrigation, Gendettu Scheme is distributed among 8 sections: Kilo 10, Mowes, Minor (Gadual) 8, Minor 6,7, Minor 5, Minor 4, Minor El Bahar, and Gendettu. The structure of the sample here has more emphasized the areas where irrigation problems are strong. That is why, the northern irrigation plant in the scheme (Minors, 4,5,6,7,8, and Minor El Bahar) represent 71 per cent of the sample (Figure 5.4). These areas lie on the end of the scheme, and had been described in the project’s internal monthly reports as the main problem of the whole scheme. The field canals there did not receive water among the eight years before season 92/93. That is way all of them have built up wells and relayed on heavily. The main cause of this „tragedy“ is the long journey of water which has to run 13 km from the main pump station, through the main canal, to these areas. In addition, as mentioned in the technical background, the tenants in the first five km. have constructed own pipes or canals to draw water directly from the main canal.

It has been also taken in consideration a representation for the ‘old’ tenants who have long experience with the scheme. In addition, to obtain comparative data, an additional survey was carried out in a very small private project (4 participants, 9 feddan) lies direct on the Nile (Ibriqu project). These kinds of projects are dominant in Shindi and north Sudan, where many farmers sharing pump set (or belong it to one of them) and sharing also the costs.

Figure (5.4) Distribution of the Sample in Gendettu Scheme

Source: Own Survey

5.3.3 Some Findings of the Field Investigation’s Methods and the Quality of Response

During the carry out of the field study, it was of interest to find that:

1. It has been noticed in both projects (more obvious in New Halfa) that the tenants were frustrated and not convinced of the positive effects that could be gained from such studies; „every day come somebody who say that his study is important for us... he put the same questions and meet, more or less, the same people... and the result is ... nothing new!“

2. Throughout the interviews with the officials of the schemes, experts, and even the research center’s staff, the general perception was that most of them do not prefer what is called „answer list“ or „closed“ questions. On the contrary, they prefer to say, out of turn, all what they thinks about the discussed topic, one for all, after the first question.

This may be a kind of security, or to be out of danger, because ‘yes’ or ‘no’ means sometimes for them responsibility! In such political atmosphere, the open discussions give the respondent a better mood to speak with freedom. So, the desire was (with many) to let the respondent speaking rather than intersperse with the researcher’s comments and/or offering him specific answers. This means that, in addition to the questionnaire, there was heavy dependence on the individual in-depth interview with check-list topics. On the other side, disadvantages of such method are already known; it takes more time, resources, and effort to control the discussion and many questions, furthermore, can not be answered or even mentioned. These, however, coincide with some components of the researcher’s beliefs i.e. 1) details are sometimes very important to explain some phenomenons; 2) ‘yes’ or ’no’ is not necessarily to be in one-word form; and 3) in the field of human behavior, it is difficult to belief in absolute ‘fact’ or to take it for granted.

3. Again, because of the political constrains, group interviews, that consider key method in the more recent approach; Participatory Rural Appraisal PRA, were not possible¹⁶⁴.

164 Participatory Rural Appraisal PRA has emerged in the mid 1980s as a result of the massive recognition of the importance of participation. In 1988, were listed by the IIED team as one of four classes of RRA methodologies - the other being exploratory RRAs, topical RRAs, and monitoring RRAs. In the same

10%

22%

12%

12%

5%

10%

8% 5% 8% 8%

Gadual El bahar

Gadual 4 Gadual 5 Gadual 6 Gadual 7 Gadual 8 Mowes H.Banaga Figaga Gandattu

Therefore, it is not valid in such cases what CHAMBERS (1992:41) has argued about

„the sensitive subjects are sometimes more freely discussed in groups, when individuals would not wish to discuss them alone with a stranger“ or that „participants fill in gaps left by others and add or correct details“. On the contrary, such group activities could be dangerous for the participants. For example, in the time of the field study, the local political administration in New Halfa thumped¹⁶⁵ three tenants from village 11 because they were participating in an open meeting and criticized the policies of the project’s administration¹⁶⁶. For this reason, the tenants in this village refused the interview because they thought that the researcher work as a secret agent for the government or the project (the same) despite the key person who was accompanied by him.

4. Figuratively speaking, it has been found that, at the field, ‘the eye’ is more important than ‘the ear’. In other words, because of the socio-political conditions in the project’s areas which might be attributed to the shades of doubt about the collected data and information, observation in the field was, to a big extent, more valuable than those collected through the project’s Management and the questionnaire (listening). Table 5.2, as example, refers to the uncertainty of data that can lead us to wrong ways. Such answers are evidence, for the researcher, that the respondents had no trust in the face of the interviewer - though the family is related to him - or may be, from other side, they were afraid, as many of the staff, that their opinions and information reach, somehow, to the political administration or some governmental agencies like Chamber of Taxation or Zakat Department.

year, this approach was applied in Machakos District in Kenya and in Gujarat in India. From the succinct review of PRA by CHAMBERS (1992), the following advantages could be drawn:

- its lable gives a sense of pride of ownership and originality, so strengthening commitment, enthusiasm and good work among its practitioners;

- information is more shared and owned by local people and shows high validity and reliability;

- outsiders here are conveyors, catalysts, and facilitators to enable people to undertake and share their own investigations and analysis;

- compared with T and V (training and visit) the former is more effective and had favorable indicators concerning: agricultural yields, diversity of crops, soil erosion and sedimentation, cost ratios, and wage rates. similar findings have been reported from the work of AKRSP in Gujarat.

- PRA is explained as ‘reversal’ - from etic to emic; from our knowledge, categories, and values to theirs.

Within the frame of that reversal, three clusters of reversal or change intervene and are mutually reinforcing: reversal of modes (from closed to open, from individual to group, from verbal to visual);

reversal of relationship/dominance (from extracting to empowering); and reversal of action (from reserve to rapport, from tedium to fun).

165 The local authority practiced this kind of punishment also in village No. 5 Halfaween, but because of other reason.

166 Within this sample and because of the water shortage, only 13 of the 36 hawashas, have grown wheat. In that time substantial quantity of water ran more than month into the drainage and roads.

Table 5.2 Some quantitative Answers from the Interview with three Members of one Family in village 13 Halfaween.

Topic/Respondent father first son second son

Education Second.School Second. School Vocational School

** Only the first two waterings and then the whole Hawasha.

Source: Own Survey

So, good observation and well understanding of the environment of the Scheme is the silver

So, good observation and well understanding of the environment of the Scheme is the silver

Im Dokument Organization and Management for Efficient Irrigation Water-Use (Seite 130-0)