The Lord and God as ἐλεήμων

with various tricks and deceit. Thereby they wish to have him eat either forbid-den pork, or at least to pretend to eat it. The scribe is not willing to participate in this fraud. The feigned friendliness manifests itself as deception. Finally the pent-up hatred bursts out of the deeply religious Eleazar. “When he was about to die under the blows, he groaned aloud and said: ‘It is clear to the Lord in his holy knowledge that, though I might have been saved from death, I am endur-ing terrible sufferendur-ings in my body under this beatendur-ing, but in my soul I am glad to suffer these things because I fear him (διὰ τὸν αὐτοῦ φόβον)’” (2 Macc 6:30).

NAB quite rightly translates the last words in a different way: “Because of my devotion to him.” This passage is clearly not about fear and anxiety, as one might misunderstand the translation in NRSV! I wish to point to the study by Egger-Wenzel of Job and Sira, according to which one should not speak of

“fear/fear of God,” but of faith and respect.¹⁴ As is clear, φόβοϛ now receives a positive connotation. Moreover, the word φόβοϛ is emotionally charged in such a strong way that Eleazar’s heart is strengthened and he is able to die for God.

This is the oldest testimony of martyrdom.

2.2.3.2 The Lord and God as ἐλεήμων

In 2 Macc 1:24e the first adjective is φοβερός and the last is ἐλεήμων. The mean-ing of the word ἐλεήμων may be illustrated by the followmean-ing examples.

(a) Because the Almighty (παντοκράτωρ; 2 Macc 8:24) had supported the Judeans, they won a convincing victory over Nicanor. But they did not pursue the defeated army that evening, because the Sabbath was imminent. After the Sabbath they divided the spoils. The weakest were the first to receive something out of the spoils (“those who had been tortured and to the widows and or-phans;” 2 Macc 8:28) and afterwards provision was made for the others. Then they turned to God in a public prayer. The unusual terminology should to be noted. This terminology is demonstrable only in Sira and in 2 and 3 Macc.¹⁵ Be that as it may, they “implored the merciful Lord (τὸν ἐλεήμονα κύριον) to be wholly reconciled with his servants” (2 Macc 8:29). The worshippers had fol-lowed very strict religious rules. Military logic would have suggested pursuing a fleeing enemy, but believers regarded it as more important to follow the reli-gious orders than to have a swift military success. At the same time, they were aware that they had committed trespasses. But they felt protected by the merci-ful Lord. Thus, they could entrust him with their failures. They are sure that he will forgive them everything and at the same time protect them from the enemy.

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14 Egger-Wenzel, Faith, passim.

15 Cf. 2 Macc 3:18; 8:29; 10:25; 12:42; 3 Macc 5:25; Sir 35:14; 51:9.

Trust and security in life are the results of the experience that God is ἐλεήμων.

Observing this pericope, one realizes that God is being described by an emo-tionally replete and positive expression.

(b) Antiochus V Eupator (164–162 BCE) was crowned king in infancy, and his guardian and kinsman Lysias therefore had to lead the army. Being a Hellenist

“he intended to make the city [Jerusalem] a home for Greeks” (2 Macc 11:3). The biblical author inserts a comment on this situation, anticipating the punch line of what is to come: “He took no account whatever of the power of God” (2 Macc 11:4a). Before Lysias could occupy Jerusalem, he had to besiege those cities that were intended to function as barriers. One of these cities was Beth Zur. The for-tress is located twenty-eight kilometers south of Jerusalem. Judas was obviously in a hopeless situation; he nevertheless wished to protect Jerusalem against its enemies. Together with all the people, he turned to God in order to obtain tan-gible and visible help in the form of an angel, and “with lamentations and tears (μετὰ ὀδυρμῶν καὶ δακρύων), prayed (ἱκέτευον) to the Lord to send a good an-gel to save Israel” (2 Macc 11:6b). The choice of words is remarkable: The noun ὀδυρμόϛ¹⁶ describes a complaint that is often caused by direct physical pain, so the threat was experienced as if it were a physically tangible pain.

This distress was so great that the people even burst into tears. The choice of the verb is also informative and although its translation with “pray” is pos-sible, this constitutes an insufficient designation of the contextual content. The meaning of ἱκετεύω – a rare verb that is used only in late biblical texts¹⁷ – is “to approach as a suppliant”. Judah and his people are not ordinary worshippers, but helpless supplicants. The situation seems even more dramatic than in the lamentations. Indeed! An angel appeared and accompanied them: 2 Macc 11:8.

It is reported that on the way to the hostile army at Bet Zur the Judeans continu-ously appealed to the Lord and “praised the merciful God (τὸν ἐλεήμονα θεόν)”

(2 Macc 11:9). Here, it becomes clear that ἐλεήμων does not describe God as a God who shows his benevolence, as part of his – general compassion, with an appropriately warm affection and cordiality. On the contrary, the experience of God as ἐλεήμων strengthens the resolve of those who have just been terrified.

Having experienced God as a reliable supporter (ἐλεήμων) during their prayers, they “were strengthened in heart, ready to assail not only humans but the wildest animals or walls of iron” (2 Macc 11:9). Paraphrased into contempo-rary language, one might say: they were intoxicated by the experience of God.

Again, it is noted that they courageously threw themselves at an enemy that had

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16 Liddell/Scott, Lexicon, 826 [s.v.].

17 In addition to 2 Macc 11:6, confer also Ps 36/37:7; Job 19:17; Wis 13:18; 19:3.

been formerly perceived as invincible, “for the Lord had ‘mercy’ on them (ἐλεήσαντος αὐτοὺς τοῦ κυρίου)” (2 Macc 11:10b). The author describes the battle as tremendously fierce. He may have chosen his words spontaneously, but the use of λεοντηδός (like a lion) is very unexpected here. Λεοντηδός is a hapax legomenon in LXX and Liddell/Scott quote our passage as the term’s only occurrence in the Greek language. Moreover, the use of the term shows that the author employs an elite Greek language, with his sophisticated Greek education becoming obvious through his use of a term borrowed by Aristotle from the Iliad. In Hellenistic education, every student became familiar with the simile of Achilles pouncing on Aeneas like a lion: Rhet. 1406b [3.4.1].¹⁸ The author of 2 Macc demonstrates with this allusion that the attack was really irresistible, because “they hurled themselves like a lion¹⁹ (λεοντηδόν) against the enemy”

(2 Macc 11:11a). Above all, we are interested in the theological content and the position of God in this confrontation. The derivatives of ελε* (ἐλεήμων in 2 Macc 11:9 and ἐλεέω in 11:10) are central in describing the experience of God: Judeans see that God protects them and that he, by his own initiative, is in solidarity with the threatened. During the threat God not only speaks of support, but he offers concrete help. No detailed decription is given of how God’s energy is transmitted to the endangered people, but the impact on their emotions and attitudes are made clear. One thing is obvious from the very beginning: faith is at the core of the human soul and empowers him to accept whatever God sends.

Therefore, even before God changes the attitude of the fearful, he is already

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18 Cf. the whole text: “Howbeit the whole plain was filled with men and horses, and aflame with bronze, and the earth resounded beneath their feet as they rushed together; and two warriors best by far of all came one against the other into the space between the two hosts, eager to do battle (μεμαῶτε μάχεσθαι), even Aeneas, Anchises’s son, and goodly Achilles.

Aeneas first strode forth with threatening mien, his heavy hem nodding above him; his valor-ous shield he held before his breast, and he brandished a spear of bronze. And on the other side the son of Peleus rushed against him like a lion (λέων ὣς σίντης), a ravening lion that men are fain to slay (ἀποκτάμεναι μεμάασιν), even a whole folk that be gathered together; and he at the first recking naught of them goeth his way, but when one of the youths swift in battle hath smitten him with a spear-cast, then he gathereth himself open-mouthed, and foam cometh forth about his teeth, and in his heart his valiant spirit groaneth, and with his tail he lasheth his ribs and his flanks on this side and on that, and rouseth himself to fight (μαχέσασθαι), and with glaring eyes he rusheth straight on in his fury (ἰθύς), whether he slay (φέρεται) some man or himself be slain (φθίεται) in the foremost throng; even so was Achilles driven by his fury, and his lordly spirit (μένος καὶ θυμὸς ἀγήνωρ) to go forth to face great-hearted (μεγαλήτορος) Aeneas;” (Il. XX,155–175; translation of Murray, Homer, Iliad).

19 Throughout the translations the interpreters use the plural “like lions” (NRSV, NAB and NETS). This is weird since there is no clue to it in the text.

glorified by the people personally and in public (1 Macc 11:9a). First, the author mentions the fear and the incipient despair: they cry out to God with lamenta-tions and tears. There is no need to describe the wealth of emolamenta-tions with words other than those erupting from this passage. Such an outburst of emotions also underlines that all stages of life are manifest before the Lord. Soon, an inner calm prevails and the praise of God follows. The Judeans are again aware in the depths of their heart that God is ἐλεήμων, “solidarity” and “ready to support.”

Fear fades away, courage and bravery take its place and they are ready to fight like a lion against those who threaten Jerusalem, their life and their faith. They thus defeat the enemy by way of emotional strength.

(c) In the year 163 BCE Lysias and his protégé, the Seleucid king, Antiochus, who was about twelve-years-old, marched against Jerusalem, according to 2 Macc 13:1. The High Priest Menelaus had joined those two in order to preserve his influence, which he was in danger of losing because of the rising power of Judas. The attackers threatened that they wanted to deprive them of “the law and their country and the holy temple” (2 Macc 13:10b). A real sense of panic gripped the nation. “But when Judas heard of this, he ordered the people to call upon the Lord day and night” (ἐπικαλεῖσθαι τὸν κύριον; 2 Macc 13:10a). The people followed the advice of Judas. “When they had all joined in the same petition and had implored the merciful Lord (τὸν ἐλεήμονα κύριον) with weep-ing and fastweep-ing and lyweep-ing prostrate for three days without ceasweep-ing, Judas exhort-ed them and orderexhort-ed them to stand ready” (2 Macc 13:12). The term “crying”

demonstrates that these prayers are highly emotional; this applies, irrespective of whether the reason for their tears is fear or hope. It is certain that the tears and the entire scene indicate an intense description of emotions. The pleas were addressed to the “merciful Lord” and produced an amazing change in the atti-tude of those who had been desperate. After this prayer they were “suddenly”

convinced that the terrible threat would be overcome “by the help of God” (τῇ τοῦ θεοῦ βοηθείᾳ; 2 Macc 13:13). Why are the Israelites now convinced that God will stand by them? This conviction is obviously the fruit of several days of en-gaging with God and his work. They have learned afresh the meaning of de-scribing of their God as the ἐλεήμων κύριοϛ. The use of κύριοϛ instead of ϑεόϛ is important at this point. First, this Lord is at the centre; it is He who has saved his people from distress since “time immemorial”.

Additionally, the word κύριοϛ points to (a) strength and power according to commonly used language, (b) the regent and his authority in the Hellenistic socio-political world and (c) the Hellenistic conception of God. The outcome of spiritual confidence is the theological conviction that the faithful may rely on their God because he is powerful. Again, the people of Israel become aware of the fact that there is a God to whom the faithful may confidently turn even in

situations that appear to be hopeless. God does not reject his people and, because he is the ἐλεήμων, he also supports his followers. It is clear that the translation with “merciful” renders only a part of the meaning of ἐλεήμων in 2 Macc.²⁰ The accent is more on “reliable” and, simultaneously, on “powerful.” This total confidence in the help of God is not to be understood as a human trick: God is not bound by a public confession or the confession of an individual’s weakness nor is he forced to do nothing else but help. Rather, in this context, the nature of God is an essential element: as in 1:24d, knowledge of the creative power of God is part of the basic elements of faith. If the creator wishes to use his power, he can demonstrate the limits of the most powerful enemy, as Judas says. However, it is the Lord who solely decides whether he wishes to use his power. “So, com-mitting the decision to the Creator of the world (δοὺς δὲ τὴν ἐπιτροπὴν τῷ κτίστῃ τοῦ κόσμου) and exhorting his troops to fight bravely to the death for the laws, Temple, city, country, and commonwealth, he pitched his camp near Modein” (2 Macc 13:14). And there now appears a new word, which designates the attitude of fighters, namely bravely. The effect is that even death has lost its horror. That the fear of death does not play a role becomes clear if you bear in mind the belief in the resurrection, as witnessed in 2 Macc, e.g.: “My brothers, after enduring brief pain, have drunk of never-failing life (ἀενάου ζωῆς), under God’s covenant, …” (2 Macc 7:36); cf. ἀνάστασις (εἰς ζωήν) in 2 Macc 7:14 and 12:43.

Reliance on the “solidarity,” the “aid” (“mercy”) of God in a threatening situation provides an inexhaustible elixir of life and a source of strength: the effects manifest themselves at the personal, social and military levels. One who

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20 The translation of ἐλεήμων by merciful is usually correct. But it needs to be questioned if ἐλεήμων in some central passages should generally be translated as merciful. In Ps 85/86:15 one reads: “But you, O Lord God, are compassionate and merciful, slow to anger and abound-ing in mercy steadfast love and true” (NETS): καὶ σύ κύριε ὁ ϑεός οἰκτίρμων καὶ ἐλεήμων μακρόϑυμος καὶ πολυέλεος καὶ ἀληϑινός. In the preceding verse one reads: “O God, transgres-sors of law rose up against me, and a band of strong ones sought my soul” (Ps 85/86:14). This makes it clear that the life of the worshipper is in danger. He pleads: “Make with me a sign for good, and let those who hate me see and be put to shame” (Ps 85/86:17). In this verse “merci-ful” in not the correct term since the reference is to rescue from death. „Gerade deshalb appel-liert er [der Beter] in 15–16 an JHWH, dieser möge sein am Sinai geoffenbartes Gott-Sein … nun auch an ihm als Individuum erweisen, damit seine Feinde sehen, dass Gott auf seiner Seite steht und dass sie dadurch als verbrecherische Menschen öffentlich ‚beschämt‘ 17, d.h. entlarvt und entmachtet werden“; Zenger, Psalm, 478–479. This example well illustrates that the mean-ing of every passage has to be examined. The biblical translators used Greek as a livmean-ing guage and could sense the nuances. Thus, the linear equalization of words in different lan-guages does not properly fathom the intention of the authors and their choice of words.

knows that God is on his side is certain that everything is possible. This is al-ready mentioned in the ancient prayer, “because in you I shall be rescued from a pirate’s nest, and in my God I will scale a wall … (he is) training my hands for battle, and my arms you made a bronze bow” (Ps 18/17:30, 35). Moreover, I have a comment on the scale of values here. In the eyes of the biblical writers, the terrifying courage to take on a fight is not a desirable ideal in itself and should not be glorified. This stands in contrast to Greek thinking in the polis. For the Judeans, the will to fight is merely a means of offering resistance to the superior power of the Greeks.