1 Maccabees: Emotions of Life and Death in Narrative and Lament
2 Emotions in narrative: Jews and their adversaries
first half unfolds in three parts: (1) a brief overview of the world that Alexander the Great bequeathed to his generals (1:1–9); (2) Mattathias’s revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes (1:10–2:70); and (3) the campaigns of Judas Maccabeus (3:1–9:22). The second half also consists of three parts: (1) Jonathan’s regency as high priest (9:23–12:53); (2) Simon’s accomplishments as high priest (13:1–
16:17); and (3) a brief account of John Hyrcanus’s succession to the high priest-hood (16:18–24). Judas is the outstanding protagonist in the first half, whereas Jonathan and Simon share the spotlight in the second half.6 The following ana-lysis will indicate that the language of feelings is more concentrated in the first half than in the second half of the narrative.
2 Emotions in narrative: Jews and their adversaries
The author is at pains to distinguish Jews from Gentiles. He identifies “Jews” (οἱ Ιουδαῖοι) as the indigenous residents of Judea and Jerusalem who observe Torah and are loyal to Mattathias and his sons. Their adversaries comprise a variety of groups including (a) Antiochus IV Epiphanes and other Seleucid monarchs, their governors and commanders, and their armies in so far as they are inimical to the Hasmoneans; (b) the surrounding nations that make war on Judas and his brothers (5:24–44; 12:53; cf. 13:6); (c) the Gentiles who inhabit the citadel (ἄκρα); (d) the priest Alcimus and his allies (7:5–25);7 and (e) Jews who are loyal to the Seleucids.8 The author reserves the term “Gentiles” (τὰ ἔθνη) for the non-Jewish adversaries of the Hasmoneans.9 He does not deem all non-Jews as
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6 In summary, the family narrative (1 Macc 2:1–16:22) spans some 33 years from the rebellion of Mattathias (167 BCE) to the campaigns of Judas Maccabeus (166–160 BCE), and subsequently the governance of Judah by his brothers Jonathan (160–142 BCE) and Simon (142–134 BCE), with a final note on the accession of John Hyrcanus to the high priesthood (134 BCE).
7 The author apparently concedes that Alcimus had a licit pedigree for his office (1 Macc 7:14).
However, he portrays Alcimus and his followers as “ungodly” since they became allies of the Seleucid governor, Bacchides, against Judas (ἀσεβής 7:5, 9; cf. 7:4–25; 9:1, 54–57).
8 The author variously describes these Jews as “lawless” (παράνομοι 1:11, 34; 10:61; 11:21),
“sinners” (ἁμαρτωλοί 1:34; 2:44, 48, 62), and “ungodly Israelites” (ἀσεβῶν ἐξ Ισραηλ 6:21; 7:5, 9; 9:25, 73). For a discussion of Jewish identity in 1 Maccabees, see Scolnic, Mattathias, 476–
483. Bickerman (God, 90–91) views the Maccabean conflict as principally a civil war between observant and unorthodox Jews.
9 The first seven chapters of 1 Maccabees contain 40 of the 42 occurrences, which the NRSV translates τὰ ἔθνη as “Gentiles” (1:11, 13, 14, 15, 42; 2:12, 18, 40, 44, 48, 68; 3:10, 25, 26, 45, 48,
enemies. He speaks favourably about the leaders and populaces of Rome, Spar-ta and other Mediterranean miliSpar-tary powers that negotiate pacts of mutual un-derstanding with the Hasmoneans. He never refers to these Hasmonean allies as
“Gentiles.”
Jews differ from Gentiles in disposition and feeling. 1 Maccabees is the story of the Jews achieving honour to replace their former shame. The author intro-duces this theme in the first three laments (1:24b–28, 36–40; 2:7–13).10 The aim of the Maccabean campaigns is to win honour for God and country. Mattathias establishes adherence to Torah (ὁ νόμος) as the resource that energizes the Jews to attain honour (δοξασθήναι 2:64; cf. 2:21, 26, 27, 42, 48, 50, 58, 67, 68).11 Previ-ously, he had rejected the temptation of a false honour that the Seleucids had promised (2:18). When restoring the Temple, the priests dismantle the altar of incense, which pagan sacrifices had defiled, in order to free the Jewish memory from disgrace (ὄνειδος 4:45). The ceremony of rededication marks the removal of the shame that the Gentiles had perpetrated on the Jews (ὀνειδισμὸς ἐθνῶν 4:58).12 After regaining control of the Temple, Judas and his brothers win the esteem of Jews and Gentiles alike through their victories on the battlefield (δοξάζω 5:63). Eventually, even the Seleucid kings laud the family of Mattathias.
Alexander Balas bestows titles upon Jonathan (δοξάζω 10:65, 88). Demetrius follows suit in honouring Jonathan and the Jews (δοξάζω 11:51; cf. 14:38–39).
The Jewish people celebrate the glory that Simon has bequeathed to the nation (δόξα μεγάλη 14:29; cf. 14:21).
The bifurcation of emotions that distinguishes the protagonists from the an-tagonists originates in their distinctive forms of existence in the world. Appar-ently, only Jews have “lives” since the seven occurrences of the noun ψυχή refer to Jews and no one else (1:48; 2:40, 50; 3:21, 31; 9:44; 13:5). In the category of negative emotions, only Jews experience distress (θλῖψις 5:16; 6:11; 9:27; 12:13;
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52, 58; 4:7, 11, 14, 45, 54, 58, 60; 5:1, 9, 10, 15, 19, 21, 22, 38, 43, 57, 63; 6:18, 53; 7:23; cf. 13:41;
14:36). Therefore the term mainly designates the non-Jewish adversaries loyal to Antiochus IV Epiphanes during the missions of Mattathias and Judas.
10 The first lament ends with the “shame” that metaphorically clothes the Israelites (αἰσχύνη 1 Macc 1:28). The second lament evaluates the Gentile occupation of the citadel as defacing Jerusalem’s former honour (ἡ τιμή 1:39). In the third lament, Mattathias describes the Jerusa-lem Temple as “a husband lacking honour” (ἐγένετο ὁ ναὸς αὐτῆς ὡς ἀνὴρ ἄδοξος 2:8).
11 Of the 26 occurrences of “the law” (ὁ νόμος), 19 are in the narrative that culminates in the Temple cleansing (1:49, 52, 56, 57; 2:21, 26, 27, 42, 48, 50, 58, 64, 67, 68; 3:48, 56; 4:42, 47, 53), two relate to the era of Jonathan (10:14, 37) and the remaining five refer to Simon’s implemen-tation of “the law” in Judah (13:3, 48; 14:14, 29; 15:21).
12 In contrast to the Maccabean successes, the Seleucid governor, Apollonius, cannot erase the shame of his defeat at the hands of Jonathan and Simon (ὀνειδισμός 10:70; cf. 10:74–89).
13:5). And Jews are the only people who mourn, as the seven occurrences of the verb “to mourn” and five of six occurrences of the cognate noun refer exclusively to Jewish experiences (πενθέω 1:27; 2:14, 39; 9:20; 12:52 [2x]; 13:26; πένθος 1:25, 39, 40; 3:51; 12:52).13
The author legitimates Jewish anger as the appropriate response of the Maccabees to the offences that the Seleucid regime and its allies have perpetrat-ed against the Temple and observant Jews. Mattathias’s rage, which derives from his zeal for the law, propels him to civil disobedience against the desecra-tion of the Temple and the prohibidesecra-tion of Jewish practices, which the foreigners are imposing (2:24, 44).
Furthermore, a cluster of positive emotions distinguishes the Jews from all other people. The author ascribes joy only to Jews, since the ten occurrences of the noun εὐφροσύνη exclusively refer to experiences of the Jewish leaders and populace (3:2; 4:56, 58, 59; 5:23, 54; 7:48; 10:66; 13:52; 14:11). The two occur-rences of the noun “gladness” bespeak the delight of Jews on the annual festival of Ḥanukkah and in going up to Mount Zion (χαρά 4:59; 5:54). The joy at the Temple dedication indicates a transformation in the people in so far as they become free of the “disgrace” (ὀνειδισμός), which the observant Jews suffered when the forces of Antiochus had occupied the city, established their Jewish allies as residents of the citadel, and prohibited Sabbath observance (4:58; cf.
1:39, 43). The joyous atmosphere of Ḥanukkah carries over to two other occa-sions: the annual observance of Judas’s victory over Nicanor and Simon’s re-claiming of the citadel (1 Macc 7:48–49; 13:49–53).14
Courage is a distinctive virtue of the Jews that is never found among their adversaries. The theme originates in Mattathias’s exhortation that his sons be courageous in confronting their adversaries (ἀνδρίζομαι 2:64). Judas follows his father’s example by exhorting his followers not to fear their adversaries (μὴ φοβηθῆτε 2:62; 4:8; μὴ φοβεῖσθε 3:22; μὴ δειλωθῆτε 4:8; cf. γίνεσθε εἰς υἱοὺς δυνατούς 3:58). John Hyrcanus, the son of Simon, reflects the fortitude of Judas
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13 The author mentions the “mourning” of the antagonists only once, in a stock phrase that underlines the heroism of Jonathan and Simon for avenging the death of their brother John by ambushing the Jambri family, thereby turning their wedding into an occasion of “mourning”
(πένθος 9:41).
14 Simon’s seizure of the citadel represents the culmination of the Maccabean campaigns (13:49–53). The narrative recalls the capture and dedication of the Temple by Judas’s forces through these common features: (a) defeat of Gentile occupiers (13:49–50; cf. 4:34); (b) a “cleans-ing” process (13:50; cf. 4:36, 41); (c) precision in dating (13:51a; cf. 4:52–54a); (d) songs and music (including harps and cymbals: 13:51b; cf. 4:54); and (e) a celebration marked by joy (13:52a;
cf. 4:56, 58).
Maccabeus by leading his troops across a brook to engage their foes (16:6 [δειλόομαι]; cf. 5:40–43 [δειλαίνω]). The courage of Eleazar represents a contrast to the melting away of courage on the part of Lysias’s Gentile forces (θράσος 6:45; cf. 4:32), for which Judas prays to God. Fear undermines the courageous Jews only once when it provokes 2,200 troops to abandon Judas prior to the battle of Elasa, the engagement that cost Judas his life (9:5–6).15
In stark contrast to the Jews, their adversaries exhibit no positive emotions.
The differentiation in feelings is manifest in the author’s descriptions of ob-servant Jews as “those who love God” (4:33) and of Gentiles and Jewish rene-gades as “those who hate us” (9:29). Rage pervades the Gentile heart. The Seleu-cid regime and its allies bring wrath upon Israel (ὀργή 1:64). Mattathias describes the era as a time of wrath and gains a reputation for successfully fend-ing off this onslaught of wrath (2:29; 3:8). Antiochus IV Epiphanes is infuriated by the Maccabean successes (ὀργίζω 3:27; 5:1; 6:28, 59). The wrath of the Seleu-cids resurfaces at the end of the narrative in the frustrations of Athenobius and Antiochus VII, who are unable to contend with the wisdom and success of Simon (15:35b–36).
Judas characterizes his adversaries as “insolent” in his first exhortation to his outnumbered troops (ἐν πλήθει ὕβρεως 3:20). According to the narrator, Antiochus and his allies manifest “arrogance” in their desecration of the sanc-tuary and defiance of the law (ὑπερηφανία 1:21, 24; 2:47, 49). Fear of the Macca-bees dominates the antagonists. Mattathias instills dread in the Jewish traitors, and their descendants are alarmed when Alexander IV Epiphanes bestows authority on Jonathan (φόβος 3:6; 10:8). After the victory of Judas’s small force at Beth-horon, Gentiles fear Judas, and terror descends upon them (φόβος; πτοή 3:25). The Gentile army flees in terror at the sight of Judas’s men burning the camp of Gorgias’s forces (δειλόομαι 4:21). Judas suggests that victory begins with demoralizing the enemy as he prays that Israel’s Saviour will fill his adver-saries with shame, cowardice, and timidity (αἰσχύνω; δειλία; σαλεύω 4:31–33).
The Seleucid leaders suffer instability of mind and heart. The textbook case is Antiochus IV Epiphanes in the throes of death.16 Worry over the depletion of his financial resources prompts Antiochus to journey to Persia, a decision that
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15 The two other occasions in which the author alludes to fear among the Jews reflect a differ-ent disposition. Prior to the battle at Emmaus, Judas dismisses the fainthearted in accordance with the deuteronomic law on warfare (4:65; cf. Deut 20:5–8). Subsequently, “fear and dread”
describe the revulsion of observant Jews to Alcimus’s killing of 60 Hasideans who were his allies (7:18).
16 Cf. Williams, Art, 110–117.
would prove fatal for him (ἠπορεῖτο τῇ ψυχῇ αὐτοῦ 3:31).17 News that Judas has defeated the Seleucid forces and reclaimed the sanctuary makes the Emperor ill (6:5–7). Literally, it shakes him to death (σαλεύομαι 6:8).18 His “great disap-pointment” at failing to take the city of Elymais only serves as a preliminary shock that culminates in his confession of his wrong-doing in plundering Jeru-salem and killing its citizens (λύπη μεγάλη 6:4, 9, 13; cf. 6:8). He dies of a psy-chosomatic illness, a severe depression brought on by remorse over his attacks on Jerusalem, its Temple and its inhabitants. (6:10–13).