Though literacy is focused on by various disciplines, the history of literacy re-search dates back to old times. Being the area that is not given due attention (Yıldız, 2007: 46), studies including new literacy approaches and historical pro-cesses that made this subject obligatory to be studied has been revealed. (Yıldız, 2007: 58). In this respect, though literacy is as old as being a historical fact, the studies related to that area are brand new. However, historical processes and stages of writing particularly need to be followed to analyze literacy.
The development of writing deals with not only the internal dynamics of the society, but it is also the product of common culture and thought. Formations that have occurred in a society are supported by other social processes. Though the processes are undulate, the common structure becomes the cultural expan-sion (Nissen, 2004: 129). Writing activity has always developed since the first day.
The starting point is the transferring of speech to the script as in verbal to text.
Therefore, writing, which developed swiftly after hundreds of years and centuries, has become a clear tool for the use of humanity. Writing that is excluded from
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belonging to one language and that has spread swiftly, has become an open struc-ture to anybody. Thus, other languages’ words have become writeable in more than one language. Writing which is copied quickly has eliminated complexities thanks to text production and record systems (Nissen, 2004: 158–159; 182–89). Since
“Writing is the fixation of meaning. When we talk our words fly away with the volatility of human behavior, unless our words put down on a paper (or another adopted record system) what we were done shall be forgotten. Therefore, when they are written, …they die still; yet, at least the meaning, what they say not saying (articulation) is protected to a certain extent for a while. In general meaning, this is not different from an action. The meaning can endure a certain extent though the loss of reality” (Geertz, 2007: 43). This endurance is related to social processes and information which provides the continuity of text.
Writing has been widely used in other areas thanks to the development of tech-nological tools during the period that metal tools spread into the public. Writing action, with their contribution to letters and writing, which was the secret of a small erudite writer class until that period of metals and tools, has started to be common among public layers (Childe, 1983: 23). The elements initiating the common use of writing are discourses which build the identity of an individual with technical, cultural, and political situations and provide the continuity, and the parts that read and use the writing (Assmann, 2001: 27). Though a tendency to the public is in ques-tion, writing and reading style(s) that developed with interactions and transition have gradually been the respect and power field of elites, religious leaders, finance officers, and the administrative part under the control of a limited structure (Kaestle, 1985: 15–17). On late centuries when full mobilization of the society occurred, it was required to be anticipated to developed public participations.
On the other hand, it can be alleged that religions influenced the development and continuity of literacy in the world. Religions, which have thousands of years of history, have protected their historical features at the end of writing. In addition to this, cultures developed different mental perceptions and belief systems (Smart, 1982: 297). The development of religions and the influence on communities have naturally influenced the literacy–social relation. In particular, the expansionist and globalizing feature of excessive religions naturally required them to create their own systems. Moreover, reading religious books has made the average com-munity adapt their writing. Books formed the basis of new social structures that are constructed from the text and differentiate the readers that are the believers.
The period in which social revolutions and fractions within literacy occurred is the period that the printing technique was formed. Printing, with the settlement of the printing system in public, opened a new world both psychologically and
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technologically. Printing also revealed a new type of man. Mcluhan’s (2014) defini-tion of the typographic man has proceeded to the development of computer and communication technologies with the development in the printing field. Printing has become the basis of modernism and the transformation of thought and lit-eracy, rather than science, secularism, and bureaucratization. During that period, literacy can be called the simple literacy period between 1600–1850 years (Kaestle, 1985: 15–20). Reform movements underlie the changes during that period. In particular, literacy sticks out from Latin fact and has become an influential tool in both the formation of states and national beliefs. Though mass literacy is less im-portant among the first wave conclusions of nation-building (Wimmer and Fein-stein, 2010: 768), the Protestant and German sample provide an important clue at that point. Literacy and ideational change with reform, and new society building initiated (Gawthrop & Grastrauus, 1984). Another important point during that period for literacy was the newspapers and magazines started to be published in 1600. Newspapers and magazines created new reader types and reading forms.
On the other hand, before the end of the seventeenth century, newspapers became a commercial meta. The development of the sector provided magazine literatures in different sections as authors, journalists, publishing houses, and busi-nesses. The press, merchants, and readers started to improve themselves depend-ing upon the base. In particular, seventeenth-century European wars expanded the audience and capitals started to follow each other in newspaper numbers. Refer-ence books and encyclopedias, as well as press, increased by leaps and bounds. The more that references increase, the more that expertise started to increase. In that case, the knowledge of the majority of individuals lasted for centuries and started to be built on purchased information from information stores like encyclopedias.
(Burke, 2001: 168–173; Company, 1983). Expertise also developed an evolve into the local points of communities. New reading formations were revealed with the strengthening of local languages and production knowledge about it, and the em-powerment of the bourgeois. The reading style shifted from a loud and intensive reading form to a silent and skimming form. The obligatory tools created by the printing presses (Iskender, 2014: 557–60) caused the transition of the mass.
The rise of literacy in Europe occurred in the 1850s and 1900s. The 1850s is the end of a second age of discovery (Burke, 2013: 12). During that period, huge social changes obliged society to increase the level of literacy. These are industrialization fact, urbanization, literacy demand of trade, nation-state building, production of national identity, development of institutions related to literacy, and support of governments (Kaestle, 1985: 15–28). Literacy has become an important tool not only for national identity formation but also for the formation of other identities
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(Moje et al., 2009). With these processes, the production of an individual, which was attempted to be idealized with citizenship education in the process of the nation state, increased the importance of literacy.
However, these processes cannot be generalized with other factors. It may differ from social development and cultural codes. When the literacy level and literacy rates of Europe during that period are considered, southern and eastern parts had lower rates than northern and eastern parts (Houston, 1983: 288; Briggs, 2000: 481;
Frago, 1990: 581). On the other hand, during that period, reading halls appeared in England (Darnton, 1990: 7–8) which started to be dominant in the printing industry. Readers subscribed to these halls for low fees and read the materials that they could not afford to buy (Jeanneney, 2006: 40; Company, 1983: 137). Therefore, literacy has become an invisible-functional structure in socialized daily life.
In the 19th century, literacy and writing systems started to change. In particu-lar, writing activity, which was massified (popularized) and commercialized, and the production of paper, shifted out the classical tools. Firstly, the iron pencil fountain pen came to the ground at the beginning of the twentieth century and pens including the ball pen were revealed in the later years of the same century.
Albeit, in the later century, the typist system in offices (Burke, 2013: 105) started the centenary adventure of personal writing and multiplication (copy) processes.
Following the twentieth century, literacy demonstrated development in various elements. Difficulty in business life, wars, and different structures between migra-tions and groups caused a change in literacy and made functional literacy popular during the thirties. In the forties, the effect of war, especially the situation of war in the United States (US), increased the importance of more functional literacy.
The functionality term (Castell & Friends, 11–12) started to find a place within the target of basic education with “survival literacy” and “basic literacy”. The twentieth century, with the definition of Hobsbawn (1996), is the period of immoderate-ness and different eras in the century. Wars and ideologies surrounding the world have become the reality of people. The rapid rising in readings in conflict zones, which was created by wars, made technology the tool of scientific revolutions. This period was followed by a humanistic process. Reading was no longer defined as a knowledge process, and in the eighties, understanding the text had become at-tached with reading fact. Developments in reading and writing that fit into periods of hundreds of years have started to shift to periods of years to ten years.
Literacy discussion in the eighties moved on with new literacy fact. New lit-eracy is the meeting of the message which is formed with the unification of idea and knowledge with a media tool instead of paper, ink, and printing. This idea, focusing on McLuhan’s thesis, put computer technologies into the center. This new
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literacy is the literacy of computer and television (Compaine, 1983: 1312–133).
With new literacy, the situation created by the replacement of text with screens (Sutherland-Smith, 2002), the screen has become the purveyor of the modern myth (Poster, 1984). Television is a tool that includes everything and has more in-fluence than it seems. Technologies such as television, the Internet, and web con-necting the earth have caused the formation of new literacies and multi-literacies.
Finally, throughout reading history, there have been periods where the concern has not been centered on the individual student or his or her mental structures or processes. Rather, the focus has been on the student in relation to others (human-to-human interactions) or the learning of groups who share history (e.g. gender or ethnic groups) or geography (e.g. classroom communities). We see this socio-logical framework clearly in the rising interest of sociocultural perspectives and in research on cooperative or collaborative learning (Alexander & Fox, 2004: 57).