Goals and objectives of integration

decrease of construction and operation costs reduces the financial burden on the government budget. The criteria to measure this objective can be total cost per person-kilometre, the total cost per ton-kilometre (of freight transport).

* Objective 4.2: Affordable transport costs

This objective focuses on reducing the total travel expenses, making transport affordable to all user groups. With individual users, travel expenses can be reduced by decreasing costs for purchasing, maintaining and operating vehicles or they can choose using public transport. The reduction of transport cost helps to reduce total living expense of households and creates opportunities to improve their quality of life. The criteria to measure this objective can be the percentage of transport expense in the total expenditure of individuals.

* Objective 4.3: Decreased energy consumption

This objective focuses on reducing energy consumption in the transport sector by promoting fuel-efficient vehicles and renewable energy. Environmental friendly transport modes, such as non-motorised transport and public transport, are developed. For the society, less energy consumption in transport sector means more options for energy use in other essential sectors.

The development of renewable energy, a sustainable source of energy, protects the environment. However, developing renewable energy is costly, which requires huge supports from the government. However, production of renewable energy creates noise, shadow, etc., which might harm the environment. The objective is measured by the amount of fuel consumption for transport sector per year.

• Functional coordination of transport modes

Each transport mode has a specific capacity and operational characteristics, which help the mode functions well in particular road conditions and road types. The functional objective in term of passenger facilitates the ability to easily switch from one mode to another. For example, with the organisation of feeder modes and trunk modes, passengers can easily access the public transport system without spending too much time for walking. By functional coordinating transport modes, policymakers can eliminate modal bias; ensure efficient economic operation of all modes in the network.

• Functional coordination of transport infrastructure

The objective focuses on enhancing the functional connectivity of different networks so that they can support each other. A well-coordinated road network increases network efficiency and improves traffic safety. For example, within public transport system, the bus network and the rail network are functionally coordinated as feeder network and trunk network so that they can complement one another.

• Functional coordination of urban land-use and transport system

The mix of land-use functions, such as recreational, residential, commercial and industrial properties, influences the amount and type of trips to and from a location. In turn, the level of access and convenience provides a transport service has an impact on the demand for land surrounding the transport service. The allocations of mix use functions, especially in the catchment areas of public transport, increase the attractiveness and hence, increase the use of public transport system. The functional coordination between transport system and urban land-use is fundamental to efficient transport and urban development.

* Technical-physical Objectives

Physical integration is required to enable functional integration. The goal of physical integration is the non-obstacle connection between transport infrastructures to access different areas. Physical integration objectives include (1) Physical coordination of transport modes;

(2) Physical coordination of transport infrastructures; and (3) Physical coordination of urban density, layout and transport system. Physical coordinated transport mode helps to reduce mode conflict and enhance operational performance of modes.

• Physical coordination of transport modes

Transport modes are physically coordinated to avoid conflicts in mode operations.

• Physical coordination of transport infrastructures

Different infrastructures are physically connected to create a comprehensive network.

Physical coordination of transport infrastructures improves operational performances of network as well as traffic safety.

• Physical coordination of urban size, density, layout and transport system

The transport network, especially Mass Rapid Transit network, shapes urban form and guides the direction of urban development. Transport network also defines the layout of the urban areas. Transport network links urban centre with sub-centres to ensure socio-economic connectivity. The development of urban sub-centres helps to limit an

over-concentration of constructions in the urban centre and, hence, decrease traffic pressure in the city centre, and in the transport network in general.

* Organisational-institutional Objectives

The need for integrated development calls for an organisational-institutional coordination that minimises jurisdictional and functional impediments (World Bank, 2002). On the organisational-institutional level, the processes for the development and implementation of strategies are established (Boltze & Fornauf, 2013). Organisational-institutional objectives include (1) Establishing organisational framework; (2) Formulating laws and regulations; (3) Disseminating laws and regulations; (4) Enforcing laws and regulations; and (5) Monitoring and improvement.

• Establishing organisational framework

Organizational-institutional objectives focus on organising a common framework in which, functions and responsibilities of different stakeholders and the coordination mechanism between them are defined. In the absence of such a common framework, cooperation and coordination amongst government agencies, and between sectors, is difficult to achieve (Dwyer & Williams, 2012b). The framework is characterised by considering the inter-linkages between the perspectives of those responsible for transport and urban development (Tornberg, 2011). The establishing of an organisational framework refers to the “joining up” of different public policy domains and their associated actors within a given territorial area. It may also apply to other dimensions, such as the relationship between regional units, or the organisational relationship between different parts of a strategy-making process (Kidd, 2007). The framework promotes the frequent and easy exchange among involved stakeholders. It might range from regular meetings of stakeholders or organising permanent working groups under cooperation agreements to founding superordinated regional authorities (Boltze & Fornauf, 2013).

Planning missions might be vested in a single agency or joint-agencies that ensure urban, and transport planning and managing are all coordinated (Dwyer & Williams, 2012).

• Formulating laws and regulations

Since the relationship amongst stakeholders is complicated and inter-dependent, the fundamental requirement for all urban-transport related planning and implementation is laws and regulations. Vuchic (2005) argues that an overall urban transport system cannot be coordinated and upgraded until laws and regulations to coordinate are introduced. Laws and regulations are promulgated to keep all the players on the right track. They clarify the status of transport planning principles and delimitation of tasks, responsibilities of related agencies in planning, service provision, contracting, managing and operating transport system and other related issues, rights to use infrastructure and facilities, such as coordinated timetable, information, ticketing, etc. (Vuchic, 2005).

• Disseminating laws and regulations

Laws and regulations need to be disseminated to the public for the compliance. Depending on the content of laws and regulations that appropriate methods of dissemination are employed. For transport-related laws and regulations, which are generally enforced for the mass, educational or marketing campaigns are effective solutions.

• Enforcing laws and regulations

Laws and regulations are just documents if they are not acknowledged by the stakeholders and not accompanied by the appropriate enforcement. Thus, keeping the commitment and the consistency of government and all stakeholders in implementing the policy and its enforcement afterwards is a requirement (Susilo et al., 2007).

• Monitoring and improvement

Monitoring is conducted continuously for laws and regulations enforcement and improvement. Related organisations are monitored for performance improvement regarding their functions and responsibilities.

4.2.2 Goal 2: To avoid conflicts

The interactions of measures might occur negative impacts. Then, integration is used as an alternative approach to avoid conflicts. Conflicts are obstacles that prevent a given policy instrument being implemented or limit the way in which it can be implemented. The conflicts may lead to certain measures are being overlooked, and the resulting strategies being much less applicable (May et al., 2005). Then, supportive measures are used to overcome or reduce the conflicts. Conflicts are identified, including (1) Cost; (2) Technology; (3) Institution; and (4) Public acceptance.

* Cost

Budget restrictions might limit the implementation of a specific measure. Costs also limit the flexibility with which revenues can be allocated to finance the full range of measures. Road building and public transport infrastructures are the two policy areas, which are most commonly subject to financial conflicts constraints (May et al., 2005).

* Technology

For infrastructure, engineering design and availability of technology may limit the implementation of policy instruments. Lack of critical skills and expertise in implementing and operating can be a significant barrier to implement the measures.

* Institution

These include lack of an organisational or legal framework to implement a measure. The lack of assigning legal responsibilities among agencies limits the ability of the city authority to implement the affected measure. It is usually hard to overcome the institutional barrier in the short term.

* Public acceptance

The lack of political or public acceptance might lead to failure of strategies, in planning and implementation stages. In the society, different target groups might be affected by the implementation of a specific measure. Attaining the public acceptance helps to reduce interest conflicts and increase the effectiveness of measures (May et al., 2005).