Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature
2.1 Generational Conflict
Several scholars attest to the fact that generational conflict is an important concept. For instance, Eisenstaedt (1956) observes: “Age and differences of age are among the most basic and crucial aspects of human life and determinants of human destiny”. Indeed, while we may take gender and class differences for granted ageing is a continuous process, the consequences of which keep confronting us (O‟Donnell, 1985:1). Generation is arguably one of the most powerful analytical tools for studying society and human interactions due to its temporal nature (Turner, 1998:303; Alber et al., 2008:1).
Nonetheless, as a social construct, generation means different things to different people. It may mean a stage in one‟s life as well as a progression to another stage. This is in line with the thesis that the generated entity has the potential to generate others of its kind albeit not necessarily identical. Hence, while generation has been conceived in the passive sense, it has an active connotation too (Giddens, 2002:63; Alber et al., 2008:3). In this study, I adopt O‟Donnell‟s view that a generation is a form of age group. It comprises all those members of a society who were born approximately at the same time irrespective of genealogical descent (O‟Donnell, 1985:2). This is in line with Manheim‟s description of a generation as a biological and social placement. As a biological placement, a generation refers to an individual‟s position in kinship terms (Manheim, 1952).
Manheim insists that a generation is not just a particular group but it has to be conceived as a cluster or connection of individuals that he calls Generationszusammenhang (1970:531). He is critical of the biological use of the term „generation‟. In biological framework, a generation is seen within family relationships and described as the temporal distance between parent and child, mostly between 15 and 30 years. Therefore, individuals of one generation are born at a similar time, grow up within the same social-historical landscape, participate in the same events, and share similar experiences or fates (Mannheim, 1970:536). However, as a social placement, a generation refers to the position that a person occupies in terms of the age group in which s/he belongs. This is in relation to other members born at about the same period in the entire society. This is what is referred to as a cohort (Braungart and Braungart, 1986:215).
A cohort is defined as a group of “persons born in the same time interval and aging together”
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(Ryder, 1965:844). Therefore, the terms; „cohort‟, „age group‟ and „generation‟ are conceived to be synonyms and are sometimes used interchangeably in this study.
The term generation thus designates a social construct that places people in different groups on the basis of their position in familial descent or social age group. In most of the African societies, generation/ age group is the main principle of social organization. This is in accordance with expectations and roles of the members of a given society (Arnold, 1960;
Lowie, 1961). Each generation is defined by certain biological factors and cultural values at a particular point in time and place. Generational change, Manheim (1970:536) insists is brought about by culture rather than nature. Similarly Heinze (2013:22) postulates that not biological but rather social-historical factors determine a connection within a generation when these individuals participate in the same political events. However, I contend that both biological and social factors play a role a generational change. Human behaviour and attitude are influenced by genealogical and social factors. Moreover, cases of intra- generational conflicts in the Kiswahili novels realized in the current study reveal that a generation is not necessarily a homogenous phenomenon.
It is worth noting that the twin concepts of generation and conflict in this study go hand in hand. A conflict necessarily implies conflicting members within a generation or between generations. Essentially, a conflict is „a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources‟. The sources of adversarial relationships are not limited to tangible economic interest or control over power by the conflicting parties. They also extend to value and identity differences (Boulding, 1962:5. Differences in perceived interests, values and needs are the most basic elements in the motivations behind social conflict (Jeong, 2008:5).
The essential nature of a conflict situation is understood in terms of difficulties involved in meeting everyone‟s aspirations simultaneously (Pruitt and Kim, 2004). Tensions basically emerge due to the pursuit of different outcomes or disagreement on the means to attain the same end. Thus a conflict situation and inter-generational conflict in particular is represented by perceived goal incompatibilities involving parties from varied generations. Additionally, attempts to control each other‟s choices can generate adverse feelings and behaviour toward each other (Lulofs & Cahn, 2000:4). This thesis is upheld by cases of conflicting characters brought out in the the four Kiswahili novels analysed in this study.
Moreover, feelings of injustice emerge from the suppression of inherent social needs and values that have existential meanings and which cannot be compromised. Inter-group conflict
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often represents different ways of life and ideologies. Furthermore, inter-group relations are constrained by a superimposed political structure in addition to their internal dynamics.
(Jeong, 2008:6). Hence, the analysis of social conflicts (including generational conflict) must take into account structural conditions such as oppressive social structures and exploitative economic systems.
Generational conflicts are mostly associated with conflicts involving members from diverse generations hence the term „inter-generational conflict‟ (Braungart and Braungart, 1986:215).
However, Boulding (1962:5) points out that a conflict represents the persistent and pervasive nature of struggles within or between groups and international competition among disparate interests and values that underlie power dynamics. It is therefore possible to have inter-generational and intra-inter-generational conflicts. It is on this premise that the term „inter-generational conflict‟ is here used to designate a clash involving members within one given generation (intra-generational conflict) or between members of different generations (inter-generational conflict).
However, to underscore the fact that generational differences account for some of the social conflicts depicted in the selected novels, the current study mainly concentrates on inter-generational conflicts. Intra-inter-generational conflicts are only cited to reinforce the conflictual issues upon which characters within the selected novels collide. Subsequently, focussing on the selected novels, the study explored how the authors deploy narrative voice and focalization as the tools to capture the forces behind generational conflicts.
2.1.1 Levels of Generational Conflicts
Besides describing generational conflicts as inter-group versus intra-group, sociologically, generational conflicts can be classified as latent versus patent or even overt versus covert (Rapoport, 1960; Kihlman & Thomas 1977; Freiberg, 1990). A latent generational conflict here refers to a conflict in its potential stage; a state where a conflict is both possible due to unequal distribution of resources, differences in opinion or attitude towards a given issue. It is also a situation where a conflictual action has taken place although no counter conflictual action has been taken by the affected party. Such a conflict is also covert in nature. In literary texts such as the novel, the various manifestations of conflicts can be inferred in the actions and interactions of characters in the fictional world. For instance, the relationship between Masumbuko and his wife Amina exemplifies a latent conflict in Tumaini. Although she
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dislikes Masumbuko‟s decision to force their daughter (Tumaini) to undergo the circumcision rite, Amina is unable to object because of her subordinate status in the family institution (TUM.13, 16). Similarly Selina‟s subordinate position deters her from confronting her husband for his lecherous behaviour (TUM.92-3). In Kipimo cha Mizani, although the older nurse is aware that Dr Juma is contravening the professional code of conduct, she is afraid to challenge him due to his senior position (KCM. 3, 4).
Therefore, a latent generational conflict in this context exists in the mind of the less powerful party who is compelled to suppress it. However, once s/he is sufficiently empowered, s/he is likely to take a counteracting action. This is demonstrated in the generational conflict between two characters; Jerumani and Johnstone Mabende in Kufa Kuzikana. The area Member of Parliament; Johnstone Mabende is portrayed as a key proponent of ethnic prejudice (KK.2). It is evident that Jerumani is in conflict with Mabende when he labels him a „murderer‟ (KK.162).
A conflict is at a patent stage when a dispute occurs as a result of competing interests. It is also an overt conflict in the sense that the conflicting parties experience grounds for conflictual action and as a result take such an action. This may involve a physical fight or even an exchange of words between the conflicting parties. However, sometimes only one party may take a conflictual action. This occurs when for example one party offends a group and it becomes difficult to predict how individuals within the group are likely to react. This is the scenario involving Jerumani and Johnstone Mabende in Kufa Kuzikana. The latent inter-generational conflict cited earlier transits into a patent one when Jerumani assassinates Mabende for inciting ethnic clashes in Korosho district (KK.173). Another patent inter-generational conflict involves Tim and his uncle Samson Tungu. The two verbally display conflicting views on ethnic prejudice (KK.25). Practically, only an experienced conflict is analysable in terms of the conflicting parties, the conflictual issue, the behaviour and attitude displayed by the conflicting parties. It is for this reason that only patent and overt generational conflicts are citically analysed in the current study.
Narrative voice (the agent that tells the story) and focalization (the orientation of the story) are crucial in exposing the actions and interactions of characters in a given novel and the subsequent implications on the narrated story. Literary works tend to depict human interactions in specific social settings. It is therefore envisaged that a discussion of the theme of generational conflict, though a sociological and anthropological concern, it can
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nevertheless be discussed from a literary perspective. Literary works create a fictional world inhabited by characters that are often vested with world views, beliefs, values and ideologies whose determined espousal often leads to conflicts. Therefore, the focus of this study is on how the actions and interactions between characters in the fictional world created by the novelists imitate what goes on in the represented human societies.
From a sociological point of view, generational conflicts are brought about by sociological and biological factors. Braungart & Braungart (1986:208) point out that people's behaviour and the attitudes they uphold are a product of biological and social factors. As individuals grow older, they undergo certain qualitative changes in physiology, cognitive functioning, emotional patterns and needs. Therefore, age mates are expected to display similar characteristics at various stages in their lives as they move towards maturity. However, because each stage of life is associated with its own orientations, needs and interests, relations between members of different age groups are not likely to be smooth and this is what brings about inter-generational conflicts. Each cohort grows up with a particular set of age norms, expectations, and opportunities that help condition the attitudes and behaviour of its members throughout life (Ryder, 1965:844). Consequently, social and political events may have differential effects on the various age cohorts in society depending on each cohort‟s stage in life-cycle development and its previous experiences.
Sometimes a society changes rapidly and cohorts come of age under different conditions, the members of each cohort are likely to develop their own perception on a myriad of issues.
When the perceptions of each cohort are substantially different from the experiences of others, they may provoke generational conflicts (Braungart and Braungart, 1986:213).
Moreover, social-historical factors can lead to a splinter group within a given generation (Braungart and Braungart, 1986:215). Hence, belonging to the same cohort is not a guarantee for unity among members of a given generation. Individual differences such as genealogical descent, gender as well as social exposure may account for their different outlook on various issues. Mlacha (1988: 45-46) alludes to this fact in his assertion that the coming of Europeans to the African continent disrupted the economic, political and social structures of the African traditional society resulting to conflicts not only between the members of the younger generation and the older ones, but also between the members of the younger generation. This is well captured in the discussion of the specific generational conflicts in the selected Kiswahili novels. Biological and social factors are played out in the conflicting characters.
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