Facets of Focalization

Focalization as a term is not free of optical- photographic connotations. Like „point of view‟, its purely visual sense has to be broadened to include cognitive, emotive and ideological orientation (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002:72-86). Subsequently, Rimmon-Kenan (2002: 80-83) identifies several facets of focalization namely: the perceptual, psychological, the cognitive, the emotive and the ideological facets. This is what Chatman labels as literal, figurative and transferred senses of focalization correspondingly. Chatman is emphatic that the literal sense appeals to a person‟s eyes (perceptual) while figurative sense appeals to the mind and emotions or world view (psychological) of the perceiver. On the other hand, the transferred sense of focalization (point of view) appeals to the perceiver‟s desire or interest (ideological) (Chatman, 1978:151-52).

3.4.5.1 Perceptual Facet

Perception (sight, hearing, smell, etc.) is determined by two main coordinates: space and time. In spatial terms, the external/internal position of the focalizer takes the form of a bird‟s eye view versus that of a limited observer. In the first case, the focalizer is located at a point far above the object(s) of his/her perception. This is the classical position of a narrator-focalizer. It either yields a panoramic view or a „simultaneous‟ focalization of things

„happening‟ in different places. Panoramic views feature prominently are at the beginning and/or at the end of a narrative (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002:79). This is quite evident in Vuta n‟kuvute, Kipimo cha Mizani and Tumaini.

However, panoramic or simultaneous view is impossible when focalization is attached to a character or to an unpersonified position internal to the story. In such a case, if the character-focalizer is inside a locked room, the room itself can be presented through his/her eyes, but not the street, unless there is a window through which he looks out. If the internal focalizer later goes out into the street, the reader may be brought along. Hence, spatial focalization

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may change from a bird‟s-eye view to that of a limited observer or from the view of one limited observer to that of another.

In temporal terms, external focalization is panchronic in the case of an unpersonified focalizer and retrospective in the case of a character focalizing his/her past experience(s). On the other hand, internal focalization is synchronous with the information regulated by the focalizer. In other words, an external focalizer has at his/her disposal all the temporal dimensions of the story (past, present and future). On the contrary, an internal focalizer is limited to the „present‟.

3.4.5.2 The Psychological Facet

Whereas the perceptual facet has to do with the focalizer‟s sensory range, the psychological facet concerns his/her mind and the emotions.²² The two determining components are: the cognitive and the emotive orientation of the focalizer towards the focalized (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002:80). The cognitive component constitutes knowledge, conjecture, belief and memory.

Conceived in these terms, the opposition between EF and IF becomes that between unrestricted and restricted knowledge. In principle, the external focalizer (or narrator-focalizer) knows everything about the represented world. So when s/he restricts her/his knowledge, s/he does so out of rhetorical considerations (like the attempt to create an effect of surprise and shock). The knowledge of an internal focalizer, on the other hand, is restricted. The internal focalizer cannot know everything about of the represented world because she is part of it.

Conversely, in its emotive transformation, the „external/internal‟ opposition yields „objective‟

(neutral, uninvolved) versus „subjective‟ (coloured, involved) focalization. When what is described (focalized) is inanimate the psychological facet of focalization is relevant only to the human focalizer perceiving it. But when the focalized is also human, his/her own subjectivity is no less relevant than that of the focalizer. So the focalized can be perceived either from without or from within. When it is perceived from without, it restricts all observation to external manifestations, leaving the emotions to be inferred from them. The second type (from within) reveals the „inner life‟ of the focalized. This can be achieved by making the focalizer to be his /her own focalizer via interior monologues. It can also be

22 These terms should be taken metaphorically when applied to narrative agent rather than to a living person (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002:80)

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accomplished by granting an external focalizer the privilege of penetrating the consciousness of the focalized (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002: 82).

When the focalized is seen from within, especially by an external focalizer, indicators such as

„he thought‟, „he felt‟, „it seemed to him‟ etc. often appear in the text. On the other hand, when the inner states of the focalized are left to be implied by external behaviour, modal expressions suggesting the speculative status of such implication often occur. These are

„words of estrangement‟ (Uspensky, 1973:85) such as, „apparently‟, „evidently‟, „as if‟. I postulate that such words have implications on the reading of the narrated story because they either suggest an objective or subjective presentation of the story by the narrator.

3.4.5.3 The Ideological Facet

The ideological facet of focalization is often referred to as „the norms of the text‟. These norms consist of „a general system of viewing the world conceptually‟ by which the events and characters of the story are evaluated (Uspensky 1973: 8; Rimmon-Kenan 2002: 83).

Normally, the author assumes a certain point of view when s/he evaluates and perceives ideologically the world which s/he describes in a narrative text. This point of view, either concealed or openly acknowledged, may belong to the real author. It may also be the normative system of the narrator distinct from that of the author or it may belong to one of the characters.

In the simplest case, the „norms‟ are presented through a single dominant perspective, that of a narrator-focalizer. If additional ideologies emerge in such texts, they become subordinate to the dominant focalizer, thus transforming the other evaluating subjects into objects of evaluation (Uspensky 1973:8-9). In other words, the ideology of the narrator-focalizer is usually taken as authoritative, and all other ideologies in the text are evaluated from this

„higher‟ position. Most Kiswahili novelists tend to adopt this mode of narration to relay certain moral lessons. This is demonstrated by Vuta N‟kuvute, Kufa Kuzikana, Kipimo cha Mizani and Tumaini.

A character may represent an ideological position through his/her way of seeing the world or his/her behaviour in it. However, a character can do this through explicit discussion of his/her ideology. Similarly, the norms of a narrator–focalizer may be implicit in the orientation s/he gives to the story. However, they can also be formulated explicitly from what the characters say. This is explicit in Tumaini where characters such as Halima and Tumaini clearly

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vocalize their ideological stance on the issue of forced circumcision and early marriage for the girl child (TUM.28-29).

Therefore, the ideological facet of focalization plays a part in the story segment of the narrative text (in the form of character focalization) on one hand and in narration (discourse segment) on the other hand. As a textual construct, focalization may be placed in whichever part of the story/discourse dichotomy. However, its location in the dichotomy depends on whether the foclalizing entity is located inside or outside of the story world (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002:83, 86). Subsequently, various ideological points of view may be involved in the composition of a text. However, the simplest case occurs when ideological evaluation is carried out from a single, dominating point of view. This dominant viewpoint in turn subordinates all other view points in the text (Uspensky, 1973: 8-9).

Nevertheless, the authorial point of view (the author‟s ideological focalization) does not refer to the author‟s worldview in general independent of his/her work. It only refers to the viewpoint, which s/he adopts for the organization of the narrative in a particular work. This ideological stance may be communicated either through the main character, a secondary character or even an incidental character. Usually, the main character(s) in a literary work can either be the object of evaluation or its vehicle. However, sometimes a secondary or minor figure only incidentally related to the action may serve as the vehicle for the authorial point of view (Uspensky, 1973:11). This authorial point of view is what is referred to as the implied author‟s ideological focalization/ stance in the current study.

In most cases, various facets of focalization are realized in one and the same focalizer.

However, they may also belong to different and even clashing focalizers (Uspensky 1973:105; Chatman, 1978:158; Rimmon-Kenan 2002:83-4). For instance, in first-person narration texts like Kufa Kuzikana, the protagonist-as-narrator reports things from the perceptual point of view of his younger self. His ideology on the other hand tends to be that of his older self. The narrated Akida that pays Tim a visit in Tandika city for the first time is only 15 years old yet, the narrating Akida that recalls this episode is more mature and wiser.

In this case, it is the ideological stance of the narrating Akida that is likely to represent the implied author‟s stance on the generational conflict on ethnic prejudice.

Instances where clashes occur are of paramount importance in this study. They are the means through which the reader can detect the conflicting parties and the conflictual issues. For

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instance, in Tumaini inter-generational conflict conflicts can be inferred from the clash involving characters such as Tumaini and her parents (TUM.14, 16) or even Tumaini and Mr Majaaliwa (TUM.115-116).

In addition, language as used in the text can signal the difference between narrator and focalizer as well as a shift from one focalizer to another. One such signal is naming (Uspensky, 1973:20-43; Rimmon-Kenan, 2002:8)). In Kipimo cha Mizani, the heterodiegetic narrative voice reports that Salama disagrees with Dr Juma for mishandling a patient (Halima) confined at the mental hospital (KCM.3). Naming is thus a straight forward way to identify conflicting parties. In most cases, the narrator describes the conflicting parties; their respective behaviour and attitude towards the conflictual issue.

Normally, narrative texts exhibit complex focalization facets. This is because in a narrative text we have the character and the narrator not to speak of the implied author. Each of these may manifest one or more facets of focalization. A character may literally perceive a certain object or event; and /or it may be presented in terms of his conceptualization; and /or his interest in it may be invoked even if he is unconscious of that interest (Chatman 1978:152;

Wales, 1989).

The complexity in analysing focalization in narrative texts can be heightened when a clear distinction is not drawn between narrative voice and focalization. As Chatman (1978:151) remarks; “„point of view‟ is one of the most troublesome of critical terms. Its plurisignification must give pause to anyone who wishes to use it in precise discussion”. He is quite emphatic on the fact that narrative voice and focalization are different concepts.

Hence, the various facets of focalization are quite independent of the manner in which they are expressed. He further asserts:

When we speak of “expression,” we pass from point of view, which is only a perspective or stance, to the province of narrative voice, the medium through which perception, conception, and everything else is communicated. Thus point of view is in the story (when it is the character‟s), but voice is always outside, in the discourse (1978:154).

If indeed narrative voice is the medium through which all the facets of focalization and everything else is communicated in a narrative text, then the two textual constructs determine the communication process/acts in narrative texts. This point becomes more explicit when we explore the connection between narrative voice, focalization and the implied author in narrative texts.

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