A final view of the Academy of Orvieto

According to propagandistic booklets issued annually for the enrolment of students in the female Academy, about 800 graduated in Orvieto from 1934 to 1943.¹³⁸ One of the booklets wrote that "female youth struck from the coin of Orvieto was a perfect alloy of femininity and 'virility', which did not result in 'masculinization', but made their femininity more splendid and stronger".¹³⁹

But these 800 girls, indeed a sort of Vestal Virgins forged in The Temple of Italian woman's physical culture - i. e. the Academy of Orvieto - were a rather dissonant elite, whom common women could not but lo ok to with envy. Far from the family, but strictly under staff control, these dynamic girls were expecting a career, not a husband, and were prepared for an independent life in society, at men's side.

They spent about three years on a 'happy island' untouched much by external problems that were saddening other Italians. Even in the war years the habits of the Academy did not change much, apart from the fact that garments were suited for soldiers, and food was not as good as before.

What is more, in 1940, just after Italy had officially entered the Second World conflict, the Academy was involved in an exciting and amusing experience. That summer, a number of selected students participated in a propagandist documentary film, L'Accademia dei venti anni [The Academy of the Twenty Years], produced by the GIL section of Orvieto, and directed by Giorgio Ferroni.¹⁴⁰

This documentary displayed daily life in the Academy by means of various sporting, scholastic and spare-time activities, where female students were the collective and enthusiastic protagonists. This movie was finished by the end of summer, and was shown with success in the Venice Film Festival of 1941.

According to former students, life in the Academy was not influenced much by policy, although students were given regular classes of fascist indoctrination. In general, students of the Academy stressed much more their brilliant future than current dramatic events, which were followed rather distractedly. They enjoyed the privileged time they spent in training, chatting and cultivating friendships which - they said - had developed a strong sense of identity and independence, and deeply influenced the rest of their lives.

The fall of Fascism in 1943, and consequently the end of their golden isolation, were really a shock for all students, a nightmare which destroyed dreams and opened their eyes to a tremendous and unexpected reality.¹⁴¹ Students of the Academy, once considered like movie stars to be invited, admired and photographed, suddenly felt they not only counted for nothing, but were looked upon with suspicion, by being the living symbol of the

detested fascist ideology. Some of them rejected Fascism, others aspired to the fascist Social Italian Republic (see Chapter 4.3), most hid to avoid persecution.

Did education given in the female Academy contribute to gender emancipation? If one assumes that there are two different types of education towards emancipation, the 'inner' stressing womanly emancipation in the domestic framework, and the 'outer' struggling for equal conditions outside the home, one should say that female students achieved both types in Orvieto.¹⁴²

In those years a lot of words were officially spoken in favour of modernisation and socialisation of society, but this process involved much more men than women. However, the Academy of Orvieto was a privileged place where female students could experiment in a well-organised education towards both 'inner' and 'outer' emancipation. The first was based on subjects stressing traditional womanly values, such as grace, elegance, modesty, religiosity, childhood and feminine works; the second was based on modern sport sciences and fascist policy, similar to that given in the male Academy of Rome. Female 'outer' emancipation was also stressed by means of a brilliant social life and frequent participation in public events, although firmly under staff control. On the whole, one should say that this kind of modern and collective education had no precedent in the Italian common women's history.

Former students of Orvieto confessed that the main objective in their life was to become fully independent and get a good job, no matter if far from their native place and family protection. Deeply influenced by the strongly emancipated model embodied by the Commander Lombardi and the female staff of Orvieto, former students said they were not afraid to work at men's sides in comradeship and self-confidence.

By supporting the Academy of Orvieto as the best way to accomplish the holy mission to forge healthy people through capable and well-prepared teachers, perhaps the regime undervalued the impact of this new kind of modern woman on the traditional female population. Young teachers from Orvieto were really a small number in comparison with the 20 million more or less old-fashioned women living in the country, but soon they started to modernise the habits of Italian girls through sporting activities, as will be

shown in the following Chapters 5.6 and 6. By stressing healthy bodily habits, organising gymnastics displays and addressing students to competitive disciplines even in mixed groups, these teachers removed a number of girls from the home and freed them from the exaggeratedly protective eyes of their parents.

However, it is difficult to assess to what extent these teachers influenced the general trend in terms of women's emancipation. The sudden fall of Fascism as a consequence of numerous military defeats did not allow these new physical education teachers to increase in number, so as to really popularise the new model of woman moulded in the Academy. Probably, by teaching for less than 9 years, these few teachers - in 1943 they attained the apex of 800 - could not reach a really extensive number of pupils.

5.4 Spare-time motor activity

As been already said (Chapter 5.2), with the coming of Fascism the ONB, GUF, and then GIL, had the task of ideologically manipulating and organising the physical education and sports activity of young people. In a short time a new body, the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro [Spare Time National Body]- OND was founded, engaging a worker's spare time.

OND took autonomy from Italians, but offered them a rationalised and assisted leisure practically for free. On the other hand, the masses were attracted by OND clubs, where they not only trained their body, but could buy goods, visit beautiful places and practice manifold activities - even those once reserved for high society - at low cost. In brief, OND was really popular among Italians who enjoyed the pleasant sensation of being at the centre of the Duce's attention. This chapter will give a general overview of OND and the involvement of female workers in it.

5.4.1 'Dopolavoro' leisure time activities

The OND was founded by Royal Decree on 1 May 1925.¹⁴³ Through OND, the fascist state aimed at the nationalisation of worker's spare time, which previously was mainly a private affair, or had a sort of collective dimension, but was organised in different ideological and confessional unions, or most importantly the manufacturing concerns of northern and central Italy.

Officially, any policy was bannned in OND, but in so far as OND was in the hands of the Fascist National Party, men of the Party did not fail to express anti Communist opinions from the beginning, such as: "[In the OND] the worker rises again from Bolshevik abjection and quietly evaluates his rights and duties regarding the Fascist State."¹⁴⁴

In the first number of its Official Bulletin, the OND presented objectives and programmes. There, according to OND, every Dopolavoro local club had to avail itself of suitable sporting facilities. The declared target of the OND was not to present a worker with just an opportunity for amusement, nor emphasise different ideologies and classes as in the past, but improve individuals for their own good and that of the Fatherland.

The Official Bulletin also declared: "While young people of the highest social classes practice gymnastics at school, and later sports in pre-military and military courses for officers, the working-class and farmers practice gymnastics and sporting activities only during military service. For the rest of their life, they do manual work which does not better but, on the contrary, damages their body. Therefore, every kind of sport is encouraged by OND, which considers sporting activities as a powerful, unique instrument for physical and moral improvement, cohesion, loyal antagonism and reciprocal respect among workers."¹⁴⁵

In fewer than ten years Mussolini's aggressive policy involved OND considerably more, and the Duce's portraits, lapidary phrases and fascist symbols invaded OND local clubs, for the sake of propaganda.¹⁴⁶

By the mid-Thirties, the Dopolavoro clubs and their initiatives were really popular among Italians. Both the working and lower middle classes met and spent a relaxing time there, away from concrete problems of money and jobs. Whoever enjoyed cultural events, or recreational activities such as cards, chess, music, drama and comedies, choral singing, dancing, sport, or was keen on tourism, could find companions and interesting recreation.

In addition, workers could attend OND popular courses to improve their culture, or technical courses to better themselves professionally in the fields of agriculture, industry, commerce and insurance.

OND was a colossal organisation. Through the territory, there were OND clubs for different categories of employees in the state, army and merchant navy, or for artists, teachers and other professionals. Manual workers were enrolled in OND sections of manufacturing concerns, small industries, commercial shops and farms, namely the places where these people went to work.

In 1935, OND boasted many cinemas, theatres, libraries and choral-music schools. According to statistical data, OND hosted 2,066 companies of

amateur actors, 2,130 orchestras, 3,787 bands, and 10,302 professional and cultural associations. In 1932, OND enrolled about 1,744,000, in 1935 about 2,376,000, and in 1939 reached the considerable number of 3,832,248 members.¹⁴⁷

In 1940, an official book for Dopolavoro leading staff claimed that OND was a true political institution, writing: "OND is disciplined, co-ordinated and strengthened by PNF, on which it depends. As a consequence, OND has a double function: educational and political."¹⁴⁸

Enrolment in OND was cheap (5 It. Lire per annum in 1940),¹⁴⁹ and easy.

According to OND staff's opinion, young female workers of 12, and male workers of 18 years could become members of OND if they had good moral and political behaviour, but also younger boys were admitted if they were already GIL members. University students could enrol in OND as well, but Jewish people were excluded from 1938, according to Mussolini's racial laws.¹⁵⁰ All members drew a lot of benefits from Dopolavoro clubs.

For instance, they could buy books, travel by train, go to cinemas, theatres, museums and sporting events at a reduced price,¹⁵¹ and buy expensive goods by instalments.¹⁵²

5.4.2 'Dopolavoro' sports activities

As far as sports and other physical activities were concerned, the OND programme was varied and ranged over tradition and modernity. A number of traditional games not recognised by CONI federations were organised by OND directly, according to both available sports facilities and regional habits. These activities were: rowing with a fixed seat, bocce (a popular kind of bowling), tamburello, elastico and sfratto (traditional ball games), and tug-of-war; but there were also modern activities such as marching, target-firing and volleyball.¹⁵³

Initially, OND members could practice popular football as well. However, in 1929 this game was not considered suitable for Italian workers by the influential Augusto Turati, a member of the fascist hierarchy. As a consequence, this game of English tradition was replaced by the volata game, which recalled ancient Italian traditions. But volata, which was not a true traditional game but merely one of Turati's bizarre inventions, did not

succeed at all. After three years it disappeared from the Dopolavoro sports programme.¹⁵⁴

From 1927, CONI and OND, both organising sporting activities for adult Italians, had to come to a compromise. In that year, the PNF press agency published the results of two meetings involving the PNF central sporting office, the leadership of CONI and its federations, and the head of OND.¹⁵⁵ In brief, it stated that CONI was to look after the most talented sports people, and OND the masses. Those enrolled in CONI federations could not take part in OND contests which, on the other hand, were organised independently of CONI. Those OND members who obtained important technical results had to leave OND immediately, and enrol in CONI sports federations. The next Sports Charter of 1928 stressed this agreement officially.

However, the fact that the most talented OND members would have to train within CONI did not mean they had to leave their OND membership completely, simply that they had to train for their favourite sport under CONI control, while the rest of their entertainment could be enjoyed in OND as well. As a consequence, many Italians owned more than one membership card, but statistics of the time hid this phenomenon, so as to stress that almost all young and adult Italians were sports people.

From 1932 onwards, OND and GUF competed in the research for potential champions for the Littoriali dello Sport annual contests (Chapter 5.2).¹⁵⁶ In those years, OND became the most important means for developing the sector of sport amateurs, and selecting professionals. In 1933, the number of OND competitions reached its apex with 191,773 sporting events;¹⁵⁷ in 1935, 11,159 non-competitive, and 4,704 competitive sport sections were counted in the territory;¹⁵⁸ in 1937, some 130,000 contests were held by OND, including chess competitions, which should not be considered as 'physical' activities.¹⁵⁹

On 'paper', there was an ample range of sports led by OND, but in practice only a few of them were really popular. For example, in 1937, it was reckoned that in about 8,000 OND sections for competitive sports, 6,434 concerned the bocce game.¹⁶⁰ This traditional and quiet bocce, which did not need expensive facilities, just wooden balls and solid ground, was loved

by Italians of different classes, including important people such as General Badoglio, the musician Mascagni and Pope Pio XI.¹⁶¹

Although in its first years the National Fascist Party had not encouraged the bocce game, which was not considered sufficiently dynamic and virile for forging the New Italian Man, later it had to give up opposition.¹⁶² In 1936, OND organised the first national championship of bocce in Rome, so as to celebrate the foundation of the Italian Empire through a 'truly national sport'.¹⁶³

In the Thirties, skiing became a popular activity in many sections of OND.

The middle classes of both sexes enthusiastically participated in cheap OND excursions at the weekend, and went to exclusive winter sports resorts, imitating the habits of the wealthiest classes.¹⁶⁴

In the winter sports ambit, and on the wave of the single Italian victory in the 1936 Winter Olympics,¹⁶⁵ OND was also engaged in the organisation of local and national championships for 'Alpine skiing-and-target-firing', which involved both male and female teams.

At the beginning of the 1940s, OND had become a powerful body in the sports field, under effective GIL leadership. As an example, a list of dispositions stressed that: a) one member of OND had to be included in each national and local board of all sports federations affiliated to CONI; b) OND could organise championships in the following federated disciplines:

gymnastics, fencing, target-shooting, roller skating, and partially athletics; c) other sports disciplines were still controlled by CONI directly, but at a basic level they could be practiced in OND sports groups.¹⁶⁶

5.4.3 'Dopolavoro' motor activities for women

As far as female workers were concerned, one should assume that they had not much time for recreational activities, especially if they were mothers of a family. What is more, the idea that a working woman would spend spare time on her own outside, and not inside the home with her family, was too innovative to be easily accepted in Italian society.¹⁶⁷ This notwithstanding, before the advent of Fascism a small number of pioneer female workers practiced some physical education, gymnastics and athletics in their spare time, especially in the industrialised and modern regions of the country.

Before 1925, these women used to train within worker societies founded by important industries, such as, for example, the Unione Sportiva Operaia [Sporting Union for Workers] by FIAT of Turin, Scuola di Educazione Fisica [School for Physical Education] by Cantoni's Cotton fabrics of Castellanza; Gruppo Sportivo [Sporting Group] by Cucirini's Coats of Milan; Società Sportiva [Sporting Society] by Magneti Marelli of Sesto San Giovanni; Gruppo Sportivo Dopolavoro Ferroviario [Railway Spare Time Sporting Group] of Milan,¹⁶⁸ Società Sportiva [Sporting Society] by Venchi Unica of Turin, and others.

After 1925, working sports amateurs, together with their societies and programmes, lost their last corner of freedom and were put under state control by OND. In fact, the women engaged in OND were a tiny minority.

National statistics show that in 1929 there were 10,901 male and 183 female Dopolavoro clubs in total.¹⁶⁹ However, it is difficult to pinpoint the number of female sections, or that of women workers in OND clubs, because from 1930 the national statistics did not separate clubs and members by sex. But there are local reports which can give an idea of the trend, such as that of 1935 from Potenza in the deep south. That report proudly wrote that there were 549 female, and 6,736 male members enrolled in OND: namely, women were less than 10 % of men.¹⁷⁰

In the beginning, OND organisers did not discriminate against women but, on the contrary, gave evident signs of appreciation. For instance, they had engaged a capable female lawyer, Adele Pertici Pontecorvo, to help draw up OND fundamental norms,¹⁷¹ and in 1928, at Turin, the OND-FIAT sports section hosted mixed groups in a 'masculine' discipline like rowing (400 men and 50 women) and 'feminine' tennis (40 men and 60 women).¹⁷²

However, when in 1929 the Feminine Fasci had to give up the Piccole Italiane and Giovani Italiane's leadership (Chapter 5.2.), their engagement in OND female groups brought an effective gender apartheid. Actually, Feminine Fasci women - having submitted to the male leadership of the Party - supported traditional woman's roles of mother and wife, according to the official position of both the fascist and Catholic gender ideologies.

As a consequence, female workers and housewives enrolled in OND were pushed towards boring 'womanly activities', such as domestic economy, hygiene and social assistance, much more than towards amusing pastimes.

This was not a shared choice, according to the results of an enquiry held in 1930. On that occasion, the majority of 100,000 female workers enrolled in OND claimed to enjoy cinema, theatre, travelling and sports - the preferred pastimes of their male companions as well - much more than 'womanly activities'.¹⁷³

These emancipated choices of OND female members, being considered morally dangerous, were criticised severely by the Church which did not fail to affirm that OND was the promoter not only of the feminist cause and 'masculinization' of women, but of their eroticism and sterility.¹⁷⁴

In fact, both in the ONB and OND, a woman's sporting activity was considered a marginal subject which was restricted to gymnastics and other graceful and quiet 'feminine' physical activities, according to most Italians of

In fact, both in the ONB and OND, a woman's sporting activity was considered a marginal subject which was restricted to gymnastics and other graceful and quiet 'feminine' physical activities, according to most Italians of