Box 5:
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The Alps constitute the highest mountain range in Europe extending over eight countries from Austria in the East to the Mediterranean shores of France. The range is located in the transition zone from temperate to Mediterranean climate. In terms of soil formation, the Alps hold a singular position as the intensity and relative importance of soil forming factors differ con-siderably from other landscapes (Egli et al., 2006, 2008, 2014; Kilian, 2010; Price and Harden, 2013; Stöhr, 2007).
On the one hand Alpine soils are highly modulated by disturbances due to natural processes (Hagedorn et al., 2010), on the other they are strongly influenced by ancient and current human activities (Bätzing, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Blum, 2004; FAO, 2015; Geitner, 2010, Hagedorn et al., 2010).
Soils are an essential non-renewable resource that plays a fundamental role for ecosystems (Arnold et al., 1990) – a fact often forgotten or neglected. Soils provide a large variety of ecological functions but are also highly vulnerable to change (Hagedorn et al, 2010). The char-acteristics of soils are very persistent and not as readily altered by anthropogenic use as, for example, vegeta-tion. Due to this fact, soils can serve as an important component in restoration efforts. During the Interna-tional Year of Soil 2015, two comprehensive overviews were published on mountain soils (FAO 2015) and soils in the Alps (Baruck et al. 2016). Both reviews focus on the special characteristics in the development and the pattern of Alpine soils, including available soil informa-tion, soil classification and soil mapping in the Alpine area. More importantly, as mountain soils are more often than not neglected in discussions on biodiversity conservation, these resources are discussed in a world-wide perspective in terms of human activities, climate change, related threats and cultural heritage (FAO 2015). However, these studies cannot conceal the fact that there is a huge gap in knowledge concerning soils in the Alps. While quite a lot is known about the soils supporting agriculture, far less is known about forest soils in the Alps, and hardly any information exists about soils above the treeline (Geitner, 2007; Kilian, 2010).
Soil forming conditions in the Alpine environment, including sites from the valleys up to the mountain peaks, are characterised by: i) a wide range of climatic regimes from North to South and West to East (Schär et
al., 1998) due to topography, altitudinal and exposure related changes and variations in temperature, precipi-tation, and wind, ii) a climatic elevation gradient with distinct vegetation belts denoting nine different veg-etation zones (Grabherr, 1997; Theurillat et al., 1998), iii) a very high topographical variability at all scales (Egli et al., 2005, 2006; Geitner et al. 2011b), determining meso- and microclimate as well as the local water budget, iv) a steep relief favouring strong morphodynamics, in particular gravitational and fluvial processes, v) a great spatial variability of parent materials with a high proportion of young unconsolidated deposits, pre-dominantly from the Pleistocene period with glacial, periglacial and aeolian deposits vi) highly diverse (his-torical) land-use practises with patterns that are vari-able over short spatial ranges.
Due to both the strong Pleistocene impact and the gen-eral exposure to morphodynamic processes, “time” must be considered as a special soil forming condition in the Alps. Beyond the factor of time, spatial cohesion, which enables the movement of soil components, is also an im-portant prerequisite for sustainable soil formation and conservation. The material removal, transport and accu-mulation processes along the slopes determine soil gen-esis and soil depth (Kilian, 2010; Scalenghe et al., 2002;
Theurillat et al., 1998); so that well developed soils, even from the same parent material, may occur in the direct neighbourhood of initial soils (Baize and Roque, 1998;
Minghetti et al., 1997; Sartori et al., 2001). When develop-ing infrastructure there is a risk that the natural flow of soil formation is interrupted. Therefore, it appears pru-dent to clearly understand and consider soil formation processes before interrupting the ecological continuum.
We remind the reader here that services rendered by soils constitute a primary and essential Ecosystem Serv-ice. Soil is not only the basis for a multitude of ESS but is also a bio-diverse rich habitat in itself, though poorly understood and seldom investigated.
Given the great variety of soil forming conditions, the inherent properties and spatial distribution of Alpine soils are characterised by:
→ high variability over very short spatial scales (humus forms often at the metre scale) leading to complex patterns of soil characteristics (Egli et al., 2005; FAO,
// Clemens GEITNER //
// Jasmin BARUCK //
Institute of Geography, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
3.11 The Alps and their soils
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Above the timberline in the Alpine zone, microtopography dominates the soil pattern. Accordingly, the differing soil charac-teristics of profiles B and C are mainly due to topography, while those of profile D are probably due to allochthon aeolic sedi-ments. Profile A represents a thick organic layer (“Tangelhumus”), which in patches covers calcareous bedrock in higher eleva-tions, often developing beneath stocks of Pinus mugo (Photos: C. Geitner, 2009) (after Baruck et al., 2016). The knowledge of soil properties and soil pattern is an essential prerequisite for sustainable land use management and should be mainstreamed into spatial planning processes. The mosaic-like juxtaposition of soil types is a relevant issue at all scales, as the high spatial variability also determines soil functions and therefore also soil related services for the society (FAO, 2015).
Source: Geitner, C., adapted from Baruck et al. 2016
// Figure 15: Shows a plot of around 100 metres by 100 metres at the largely treeless dolomite hilltop Gaisberg (1,750 metres, Brixen Valley, Tyrol, Austria) illustrating small-scale variability of soils and their features, in particular organic matter content and distribution, grain size and stone content, as well as degree and depth of weathering
2015; Geitner, 2007; Hagedorn et al., 2010; Kilian 2010; Theurillat et al., 1998; Veit 2002)
→ typical elevation gradients of some soil proper-ties – by and large the portions of fine grain sizes, pH-values, exchange capacity, stability of aggregates and the incorporation of organic matter decreases with altitude
→ multi-layered soil profiles and buried soils, which are quite common in this environment especially at
geomorphologically active sites (FAO, 2015; Geitner et al., 2011a; Veit et al., 2002).
Based on these conditions, specific problems arise when surveying but especially when modelling, and interpreting soils in the Alpine environment. The ap-propriate extrapolation from point to area (from the profile site to a cartographic unit) remains challenging (Baruck et al., 2016). This fact as well as some typical soil features in the Alps and their high spatial variety can be seen from Figure 15.
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Greening the economy is a new paradigm that glo-bally emerges as knowledge and awareness about planetary boundaries and limits to natural resources increase. According to UNEP’s (United Nations En-vironment Programme) widely used definition, “…
a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive.
Practically speaking, a green economy is one whose growth in income and employment is driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and re-source efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.”
An ecological network for the Alps - that aims to link existing habitats and to provide new ones for Alpine species – is an important tool to maintain biodiversity and to safeguard ecosystem services.
Besides, a number of activities and measures related to ecological connectivity also have a potential to generate economic benefits (ECOTEC 2008). These measures can affect different socio-economic sectors like education, tourism, spatial planning, agriculture, forestry, water management etc. They include the establishment of green infrastructure such as fish ladders, green bridges, hedges, educational hiking trails etc. Furthermore, they incorporate numerous other activities across sectors, for instance, wetland restoration that safeguards water related biological functions and at the same time provides for other ecosystem services like flood prevention or nutrient retention. Similarly, afforestation measures can on
the one hand contribute to developing corridors and stepping stones for species and on the other hand provide services like erosion control or water purification. As such, connectivity measures are often multi-functional and affect diverse ecosystem services, sometimes at different periods in time.
Apart from environmental effects, connectivity measures can generate economic benefits (Nau-man et al. 2011). These may be realised in terms of i) capital investments for infrastructure, ii) additional business or employment opportuni-ties in different sectors (planning, counseling, manufacturing), iii) reduced costs, for example for water purification or flood control, or iv) the diver-sification or expansion of value-added chains, for instance, in the tourism sector.
In order to further explore and to make better use of the synergies between connectivity measures and efforts to green the economy in the Alps, the following actions should be taken. More evidence is needed on economic benefits and costs of con-nectivity measures, including the valuation of multiple ecosystem services. Besides, the narratives of best practices should be made available to depict the potential of linking connectivity to sustainable development. Last but not least, more awareness raising for utilising synergies and long-term effects of ecological networking in the process of greening the economy is necessary to ultimately broaden the network of conservation actors.
// Bettina HEDDEN-DUNKHORST //
Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Division of International Nature Conserva-tion, Bonn, Germany
// Yann KOHLER //
Alpine Network of Protected Areas ALPARC, Chambéry, France