3.3 Research Results
3.3.2 Deviation and similarities of “how women are actually represented in advertising and
represented in advertising and the media”
Literature and focus group members show that the portrayal of women in advertising and the media can be categorised into following roles and stereotypes. After description of each role by literature, participant´s opinions with regard to these roles and stereotypes are noted.
Beauty roles
Initially, both literature and group members of the focus group discussions define that women in advertising and the media are highly represented as young, beautiful, attractive379, super-tall and super-slim models380 with wrinkle-free – and depilated skin.381 In other words, women in advertising campaigns tend to represent an appearance-related perfection that is hardly attainable by the average woman382. In particular, they are all retouched, meaning, they do not look like women in normal life and they often represent mousses or hair colours which help to gain youthful appearance. Besides this, they increasingly advertise for fashion - /luxury products such as shoes, clothes and personal-care products. Participants of the focus group noted that one reason behind the representation of women in advertising as so-called young supermodels is that this kind of representation is the prevalent beauty ideal in European societies and everyone wants to look like this.
In contrast, literature shows that although most advertising campaigns where women are inserted focus on the beauty ideal of young, tall, lean and slender bodies with
379 cf. http://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Attraktivitaet
380 cf. Hoffmann (2012), p. 3
381 cf. Berry (2007), w.p.
382 cf. Engeln-Maddox (2006), p. 258
mainly white, wrinkle-free - and depilated skin, the Ogily & Mather agency have tried to change this kind of beauty ideal with their Dove-campaign for body-care products.
In particular, the company approached confident average-looking women with charisma on the road, and selected them for their campaign. Images that are seen in magazines and newspapers, on billboards and on television show women in underwear who are not slim. These women are chubby, have big breasts, wide hips or a larger belly. In other words, for the first time, the agency does not display supermodels, but rather normal women have been moved into the public spotlight.383 Firstly, it is necessary to mention that there are different opinions between the younger group members (age group of 18-30 years) and the older ones (age group of 35-65 years).
As a brief summary, the older participants feel highly attracted by these uncommon representation of women in advertising and therefore they would rather buy the product. In contrast, the younger group members feel more addressed by slim, tall and perfect styled women and therefore they do not buy products represented by well-rounded women in underwear.
Occupational roles
In general, literature and group members state that women are becoming more and more important with regard to buying decisions due to their increasing occupational situations, among other things, and in line with this, their growing purchasing power.
Nevertheless, literature shows that women in advertising are less commonly depicted in occupational situations in contrast to men. In other words, not that many women in advertising are represented as professional or high-level business ladies.384 Generally speaking, men are more assertive and aggressive as historically they have been more likely to assume positions of leadership, while women do not have such characteristics and thus do not represent such roles.385 However, if women are represented as so-called career woman, they are are highly associated with attributes such as strength, lack of emotions, efficiency, ambition, determination, recklessness and independence.386 Examples are nurses, teachers or secretaries.
383 cf. Kreienkamp (2007), p. 131ff.
384 cf. Courtney/Lockeretz (1971), p. 92ff.
385 cf. Putrevu (2001), p. 4
386 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 92f.
It is necessary to mention that there are differenent opinions between the younger focus group members (age group of 18-30 years) and the older ones (age group of 35-65 years). The younger participants stated that men are more often represented in advertising campaigns in occupational situations. One reason behind is that although in today´s society there are not that many women that are solely housewives or stay-at-home mothers, in past, it was normal that men are the working part in family and women are at home, keep the household and watch the children.
Thus, this traditional distribution of occupational roles is grounded in a lot of people´s mind up to now. However, if women are portrayed in occupational roles they are represented in subordinated positions. Besides this, they are solely business ladies and are not working women keep besides the household. Examples are kindergarteners or assistants. The older focus group participants stated that although the decision if women or men represent a certain product in occupational oriented advertising campaigns highly depends on the product itself, one can define a balance between women and men portrayed in advertising campaigns in occupational situations. In particular, women are represented as career women in management positions, who are able to handle everything in daily life easily.
As a brief summary, all participants of both focus groups stated that women in advertising campaigns are increasingly represented in private settings rather than in occupational ones.
Expert roles
Next, Holtz-Bacha (2011) defined in her book entitled “Stereotype? – women and men in advertising” the representation of women as experts/ in working situations, which can be categorised into the portrayal of women in advertising in occupational roles. Women in advertising who are represented in an expert position are between 30 and 45 years old. Besides this, they are slim, look very well cultivated and due to their discreet make-up seem really reputable and trustworthy.387 In particular, women are often experts for dental care. With regard to drugs, women in advertising often act as experts for advertising over-the-counter medicine products.
The results of the focus group discussions show that although it highly depends on the product itself if women or men are portrayed as experts in advertising campaigns,
387 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 92f.
men are more often represented in expert roles than women, because society´s opinion is that experts are automatically associated with men and this kind of thinking is also communicated in advertising campaigns.
Non-occupational roles/activities
Literature and focus group members associate with non-occupational roles with regard to women in advertising, on the one hand, roles such as mothers, grandmothers, housewives and family idylls. On the other hand, however, they are increasingly represented as sexual objects or decorative accessories. It is highly uncommon to view any television spots, whether in programmes, commercials or any magazine pictures, without scantily dressed or undressed women.388
In line with these roles and stereotypes, Holtz-Bacha (2011) defined, on the one hand, women in advertising and the media as housewives/mothers/family idylls.
The role of mother is depicted as a so-called “super-mam” who is in a position to select correct food products which are essential for their children’s healthy nutrition.
However, there are modern interpretations of the role of mothers whereby the message should be that success in one´s career can be combined with the role of the caring mother. The role of housewife in advertising represents the competent specialist for all contingencies of everyday life.389 Housewives and mothers are between 20 and 35 years old, slim, perfectly styled, wear modern clothes, have a smile on all the time and seem to be very natural as well390. The activity of housewives in advertising is rarely recognised as a professional activity. This is particularly due to the fact that household chores such as cleaning are done quickly and easily when using the right products.391
Focus group members stated that the combination of housewife and mother is highly prevalent in advertising campaigns. Although this traditional role of women decreases gradually, it is still the old picture in people´s mind that women stay at home and men work. Besides this argument, although nowadays men are partly buyers of household products, women are main buyers of these products, and thus advertising experts represent women in their campaigns to gain attention from the target group of woman and convince them to buy their products.
388 cf. Zimmerman (2008), p. 71
389 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 91f.
390 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 91f.
391 cf. Schmerl (1992), p. 26
In line with these arguments is the representation of women in advertising as superwomen. Participants stated that women in advertising campaigns are in a position to handle different things like career, household, education of their children and being sexy for their husband easily and are still perfectly styled.
On the other hand, women in advertising and the media can be defined as sexual objects, whereby a range of relatively young women between 16 and 30 years are represented. They are not only slim and beautiful, they still have an erotic aura as well.392 Advertised products include exclusive cosmetic products, perfumes, make-up, jewellery, underwear and fashion represented by beautiful models.393
Focus group members also stated that women in advertising campaigns are often represented as sexual objects. Reasons behind is that sex-sells which means that sexy portrayed women in advertisements stimulate the attention and will be remembered afterwards. Although some participants stated that they know that this kind of representation often does not correspond to reality and they do not held the belief of the advertising message, it often looks more appealing for the target group of woman if women in advertisements are depicted as well-kept, slim and sexy.
Others mentioned that they want to come close to the appearance of the represented women.
Environment/setting
In general, literature and focus group members noted that it seems that men in advertising campaigns are portrayed much less in private settings than women.394 395
396 Focus group members stated that the setting where women are represented is highly in house, with the family, in personal life while eating or cooking.
According to Holtz-Bacha (2011), roles of women in their leisure time can be categorised into:
– The young, beautiful woman
These women are consistently represented as young, attractive, beautiful, slim, cultivated, as well as being well-dressed and between 18 and 30 years old. All of
392 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 90f.
393 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 90f.
394 cf. Bergler (1992), p. 32
395 cf. Furnham/Paltzer (2010), p.221
396 cf. Furnham/Paltzer (2010), p.222
them seem to be happy in their situations and content with the products they use.
Examples are the representation of all kinds of cosmetic products.397 – The natural woman
These women are between 18 and 40 years old. Although these women are obviously not all beautiful, they are always cultivated and attractive. Besides this, they look relaxed and calm and seem to be in harmony with themselves.398
– The unconventional woman
Examples of these include spots where beautiful, but older women are represented.
These women especially have grey hair and many wrinkles, but they are simultaneously attractive, cultivated and self-confident..399
Another main role in this category is the wild and adventurous woman who is represented in a young, beautiful, but also in a brave and adventurous way. Finally, there is the type of the anti-woman who appear foolish, arrogant or overbearing and behave recklessly. This kind of representation of women in advertising seems more daunting than attractive.400
Authority roles
Literature shows that on average men in advertising and in the media are more likely to be portrayed in an executive position and women are often represented in instructed situations. However, women and men in the media and in advertising are depicted more and more equally sharing different roles. Although one can see balanced female and male roles with regard to various functions, it is necessary to mention that with regard to the sexual representation of gender in advertising, women are not equated with men.401
Although some members of the focus groups stated that more and more women are represented in advertising campaigns in authority/dominant roles, most of them mentioned that more men than women are portrayed in authority/dominant positions in advertising campaigns. The reason behind this argument is that men often have more know-how in for example technical things like cars and thus are more authentic and reliable in authority/dominant positions than women. Another main argument is
397 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 95ff.
398 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 95
399 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 95ff.
400 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 95ff.
401 cf. Mager/Helgeson (2011), p. 248
that up to now, it is typical thinking in society that increasingly men are represented in positions of authority.
Age roles
Literature and focus group members noted that older women in advertising are highly underrepresented. Marketing - and advertising experts differentiate between women under 30 years, women between 31 and 50 years, and those over 50 years. With regard to the representation of women in advertising and the media most females depicted are in the youngest age group.402 Literature shows that women often lose their utility after the age of thirty-five, meaning, the existence of women represented in television spots is highly due to their function in representing youth and beauty.403 Focus group participants stated if older women are portrayed in advertising, they have almost no wrinkles and look for their age still very good. Furthermore, they are in most cases represented in a fit - and healthy way and they often give wise advices to their children or grandchildren. Another salient point mentioned by participants is that mothers represented in advertising campaigns are in many cases middle-aged and are not depicted as super young.
According to focus group members, one reason why advertising experts represent mostly young women is that everybody is getting old one time, and as a consequence thereof, everybody wants to see young examples in advertising campaigns.
Contrarily, literature shows that more and more companies have recently come to ignore the dominating cult of youth with regard to women in advertising and they rely on the persuasive power of women over 40 years. Reasons given for this are that this kind of target group is educated, their lives run in fixed and regulated pathways and they have a greater budget at their disposal for their own consumption as their children are in most cases adults.404
Holtz-Bacha (2011) defined in her book entitled “Stereotype? – women and men in advertising” the representation of women as grandmothers, which can be categorised into the portrayal of women in advertising in age roles.
402 cf. Furnham/Paltzer (2010), p.219
403 cf. Davis (1990), p. 330
404 cf. Bissell/Rask (2010), p. 646
In general, grandmothers in advertising are cultivated, well-dressed and are mentally and physically fit and open to various changes. Besides this, elderly women are represented in a new, self-conscious way of dealing with themselves and their age.
All participants of the focus groups stated that women in advertising campaigns are generally not portrayed as grandmothers. Nevertheless, a few advertisements yet came to their minds: XX-Lutz campaign where a family including a grandmother is represented or Werther´s Echte campaign where a grandmother is portrayed with her grandchild. Other examples are the representation of aged female famous personalities advertising for cosmetics such as mousses against wrinkles. They look in most cases very young with wrinkle free skin.
Mental health roles
Literature shows that if advertising campaigns demonstrate health problems, women are increasingly inserted. They deal efficiently with tired legs, headache, hoarseness or mental problems by using the right medicine.405 In particular, advertising campaigns often carry out their promotions using women who advertise for promising recipes that help to deal with the problem of cellulitis or for lotions, masks or other kinds of preparations to effectively cope with daily stress.406 In addition to this, women in advertising and the media are often depicted with diet products.407 Another main point is the representation of cosmetic surgeons with regard to women in advertising. Focus group members noted that women are mainly portrayed in printed media such as magazines to promote cosmetic surgeons such as cellulite reductions, botox splashes, tummy tucks and liposuctions, but hardly in television - or radio spots. In general, there are less advertising campaigns emphasised on the topic of cosmetic surgeons as it is treated in a discrete way until today.
Another main representation of women in advertising and the media, which can be categorised into the role of mental health is the portrayal of sporty women according to Holtz-Bacha (2011). In other words, women are represented in a sporty, dynamic, health-conscious and vital way. They are active, self-confident, slim, cultivated and obviously enjoy their activity.408
All participants of the focus groups agreed that women in advertising are increasingly represented in a sporty, dynamic, health-conscious and vital way.
405 cf. Bergler (1992), p. 33
406 cf. Tschernookoff (1993) in Assig, p. 95
407 cf. Hill (2002), w.p.
408 cf. Holtz-Bacha (2011), p. 93f.
Health and wellness is the latest fashion in our society, and thus everyone wants to be healthy and fit and to look like the sporty female models represented in advertising campaigns. In particular, women increasingly advertise for healthy food such as light -, organic - or even diet products.
Equating products with women
Women are often equated or compared to particular products, meaning, that women often advertise for products that usually fit and are a necessity for the target group of woman.409410411 Usually, the dress or the posture of women in advertising is adapted to colours or lines of the product. In other words, this kind of images in advertising has become so persuasive that they have significant influences on customer’s experiences and understanding.412 Besides this, equating products with women in advertising can also occur through the advertising message. In particular, the message can highlight common attitudes.413
Racial and ethnic minority roles
In general, participants of the focus groups defined Blacks and Asians, but also Slovenes and Croats as female ethnic minorities in advertising. Literature and focus group members stated that racial and ethnic minorities are almost non-existent in advertising campaigns.414 According to the focus group members, one main reason behind is that these portrayals are not representing the ideal of our society. These women are the minority and hardly anybody wants to be like them. Nevertheless, if female ethnic minorities are represented in advertising campaigns they often advertise for fashion products. Examples are the advertising campaigns from Benetton, Palmers and Dove. They portray a mixture of nationalities such as female Asians or Blacks (not Black women alone) in their advertisements to show tolerance towards minorities and try to demonstrate that everybody around the world is equal.
Moreover, if Black women are represented in advertisements, they are often portrayed in need of help. In many cases they are represented on posters of social organisations in combination with children.
409 cf. Bergler (1992), 32-33
410 cf. Furnham/Mak (1999), p. 415 ff.
411 cf. Ganahl (2003), p. 549ff.
412 cf. Kang (1997), p. 980
413 cf. Schmerl (1992), p. 20
414 cf. Coltrane/Messineo (2000), p. 382
Literature shows that white-skinned men are represented in advertising campaigns as powerful, and white-skinned women, in contrast, as kind of sexual object.
Furthermore, white-skinned people represented in advertising campaigns enjoy more prominence and exercise more authority.415
Representation in a humiliating, degrading or violent way
Prevalent when advertising messages carry open and subliminal sexism. This urges women to take on gender roles and puts them at a disadvantage due the continuous progression of stereotypes, or sex-appeal has no connection to the product, or violence against women through pornography takes place, or women are depicted as beings that can be bought and sold or female persons are humiliated, ridiculed or may even be violated in various other ways.416417418 Additionally, the advertising and media sector is highly characterised by pictures of a slim, ideal body shape and this kind of representation can also be regarded as discriminating.419 420 Women often feel discriminated by advertising if experts neither consider enough women’s intelligence or qualifications, nor the professional equality between women and men.421422
In general, all participants agreed that there are hardly any advertising campaigns where women are represented in a humiliating, degrading of even violent way. The reason behind is that our society is highly sensitised against violence, sexism and pornography. As a consequence thereof, products advertised in that kind of way are, on the one hand, topics of taboo for advertising experts, and on the other hand, are rejected by buyers. Furthermore, representing women in humiliating, degrading or violent advertising campaigns will lead to negative images. As women are one of the main target group for advertising experts, they can lose a lot of buyers, and as a consequence therof, a lot of money.
Next, this thesis defines on the one hand, how literature defines how women want to see themselves represented in advertising and the media, and on the other
415 cf. Coltrane/Messineo (2000), p. 363
416 cf. Schmerl (1992b), p. 237
417 cf. Sharma (2012), p. 2
418cf. Mayer/Illmann (2000), p. 594
419 cf. Schmerl (1980), p. 6
420 cf. Huang (2013), p. 185f.
421 cf. Bergler et al. (1992), p. 166
422 cf. Stankiewicz/Roselli (2008), p. 581