Chapter 7 / 8 (Summary and Conclusion / Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerung) These chapters contain the major findings of this work and their implications for
7. Chuckanut Basin
165
the marine Ranging River Formation and the marine-terrestrial Puget Group, the middle to upper Eocene Naches Formation, as well as the Swauk and Roslyn Formations, and the Chumstick Formation in central Washington (Johnson, 1982).
Chuckanut sediments have been subdivided into six different members (from ~oldest to youngest): (1) Bellingham Bay member (BBM), (2) Governors Point member, (3) Slide member (SM), (4) Padden member, (5) Maple Falls member, and (6) Warnick member, whereby the stratigraphic positions of the Maple Falls and Warnick members are uncertain (Figs. 21B; Johnson, 1982; Mustoe et al., 2007). Sediments consist of mostly arkosic sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone, and coal layers and provenance analysis imply the rapidly exhumed high-grade metamorphic terrane in eastern Washington (including the Omineca belt) as well as adjacent fault blocks to the west of the basin as sediment sources (Johnson, 1982). Sedimentary thickness has been estimated to 5.7 to 6.0 km of alluvial sediments, reflecting an extensive fluvial system. Latest Paleocene to Eocene age estimates of Chuckanut sediments are based on fission track dating and palynological data (Johnson, 1982, 1984, 1991). The Chuckanut sediments are interbedded with and/or intruded by rhyolith (52.7 Ma and 38-45 Ma) and basaltic dikes (41-50 Ma) (Johnson, 1982). Palynological studies indicate a subtropical flora and point to a late Paleocene age for the basal Chuckanut Formation and a middle to late Eocene age for the upper Chuckanut Formation (refs. in Johnson, 1982). Post- (or syn-?) depositional deformation in the late to middle Eocene resulted in NW- and E-W-trending folds (Johnson, 1982;
Lapen, 2000). The Chuckanut Formation is unconformably overlain by the late Eocene to Oligocene Huntingdon Formation (Johnson, 1982; Lapen, 2000).
The Bellingham Bay member and the Slide member yielded fossil leaf imprints that reveal the presents of subtropical plant communities, including palm remains indicative of cold month temperatures > 5°C. Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP) analyses yield mean annual temperatures (MAT), cold month mean temperatures (CMMT), and a mean annual range of temperatures (MART) of MAT = 15°C, CMMT = 10°C and MART = 10°C for the Bellingham Bay member and MAT = 16°C, CMMT = 13°C and MART = 6°C for the Slide member (Mustoe et al., 2007). Leaf imprints from the Slide member (palms, tree ferns, taxodiaceous conifers, angiosperms) suggest a subtropical climate and dense rainforest vegetation with mean annual precipitation amounts of 1500-2500 mm (Mustoe, 2002). Additionally, animal tracks (webbed bird, small shorebird, and heron-like tracks, turtle tracks, plantigrade mammal tracks), preserved on bedding planes within the Slide member, indicate a shallow water/swamp environment and require moist, plastic sediment, partial drying of the surface and a subsequent rise in the water level. The preservation of Perissodactyl (probably early horse or tapiriod) tracks suggests dense vegetation (forest dweller) and Mustoe (2002) argues in
167 7. Chuckanut Basin
this case for a tapiriod, a low-land dwelling species that consume aquatic vegetation (Mustoe, 2002; Mustoe et al., 2007). Whereas the pollen analyses from the Padden member indicate a warm-temperate climate without palm and fern records but with rare lowland conifers. CLAMP analyses yield MAT = 12°C, CMMT = 3°C, and MART = 18°C for the Padden member and thus, indicate a considerable colder and less equal climate compared to the Slide and Bellingham Bay members (Mustoe et al., 2007). This lead to the conclusion that the Slide and the Padden members were not contemporaneously deposited, revising the Chuckanut stratigraphy and basin fill thickness to ~9000 m (Fig. 21B) (Mustoe et al., 2007).
7.1. Stable isotope data of the Chuckanut Formation
We sampled the Chuckanut Formation at 4 different localities, comprising the Bellingham Bay member (Glacier and Lake Whatcom sections) and the Slide member (Canyon Creek and Slide Mountain sections).
The Bellingham Bay member consists of alternating intervals of coarse-grained and fine-grained units of ~2700 m (western basin) to ~3300 m (eastern basin) thickness. The base of the BBM rests unconformably on pre-Cenozoic rocks and marks the southern boundary of the Chuckanut outcrop belt. Provenance was from the east-northeast (Johnson, 1982).
Alternating sediment cycles comprise a lower coarse-grained unit of arkosic sandstone and minor conglomerate and an upper fine-grained unit of mudstone, minor fine-grained sandstone, black shale, and coal. Ripples, rootlets, burrows, mottled horizons, and plant fossils are reported to be common in the fine-grained units (Johnson, 1982). These fining-upward cycles likely represent meandering river systems and the basin-wide mixed meandering-channel and floodplain-channel sedimentation style suggests a low-gradient delta or coastal plain as depositional environment (Johnson, 1982). A dacit lithic-tuff bed close to the top of the BBM yielded a zircon fission-track (ZFT) age of 49.9 ±1.2 Ma and a maximum depositional age was estimated from the youngest detrital ZFT ages of ~55 to 58 Ma (Johnson, 1982, 1984) and later confirmed by zircon U/Pb ages of ~57 Ma from the basal part of the member (McLean et al., 2009). These ages agree with palynological analyses, suggesting late Early to early Middle Eocene ages for the BBM. In addition, the lack of annealed zircon and apatite minerals indicate that burial temperatures were not exceeding ~120°C (Johnson 1982). We sampled the BBM close to Johnson’ composite reference section, located in the eastern part of the basin, south of the town of Glacier, and in the intermittently exposed part on Lake Whatcom Boulevard along the west shore of Lake Whatcom.
The Slide member crops out in the northeastern part and consists of ~2000 m of east-derived sediments. Similar to the BBM, fining-upward cycles of coarser-grained
well-sorted arkosic sandstones and fine-grained units of mudstones, minor coal and sandstones dominate the sections. In general, Slide member deposits are finer-grained and thinner than in the BBM and conglomerate is largely absent (Johnson, 1982, 1984, 1991). The sandstone is typically ripple-laminated, trough cross-bedded, or flat laminated; rootlets, burrows, and mottled horizons are common, and organic matter and coal is abundant (Johnson, 1982, 1984; Mustoe et al., 2007). Depositional environments probably are a meandering rivers system and lakes, whereby the competence of the fluvial system decreased compared to the BBM. The age of the sediments is likely middle Eocene, since they overlie the BBM and interfinger with the Padden member (Johnson, 1982, 1984;
however, see revised stratigraphy of Mustoe et al., 2007; Fig. 21B). Within the Slide member, we sampled two sections: One is located along the Canyon Creek Road, northwest of the town of Glacier, and the other on a logging road on the Slide Mountain, southeast of the town of Maple Falls.
Altogether, we collected 56 samples of carbonate concretion and carbonate-cemented sand- to mudstone horizons at the 4 localities in the Chuckanut Basin. δ18Ocarbonate and δ13Ccarbonate values range from 10.8 to 18.2 ‰ and -13.2 to 8.3 ‰, respectively, whereby significant differences exist between samples from the Bellingham Bay member and the overlying Slide member. Mean δ18Ocarbonate values of the Bellingham Bay member (16.0
±1.4 ‰ at Lake Whatcom (n=4) and 17.6 ±0.2 ‰ at Glacier (n=10)) are ~4 ‰ higher than δ18Ocarbonate values of the Slide member with mean oxygen isotopic compositions of 12.0 ±0.7 ‰ (Canyon Creek, n=18) and 12.6 ±0.9 ‰ (Slide Mountain; n=24) (Fig. 22 and Tab. 5; Appendix Tab. A6.10). Mean δ13Ccarbonate values of the Slide member samples are identical within errors with -0.6 ±3.7 ‰ (Canyon Creek, n=18) and 0.1 ±1.8 ‰ (Slide Mountain; n=24), whereas mean δ13Ccarbonate values of the BBM localities are significantly higher at the Lake Whatcom locality (4.4 ±2.8 ‰; n=4) and significantly lower at the Glacier locality (-8.9 ±2.1 ‰; n=10) (Fig. 22). This is best illustrated in the δ18Ocarbonate - δ13Ccarbonate covariance plot, where samples from the Glacier locality cluster at high oxygen/low carbon isotopic compositions and are clearly distinct from the three other sampling localities (Fig. 22D). Subdivision into concretion and non-concretion samples indicates no differences between these two types of carbonate accumulations (Tab. 5).
7.2. Remarks
Several authors correlated the Swauk and the Chuckanut Formations (Tabor et al., 1982, and references in there) and Frizzell (1979) suggested that the Swauk and the Chuckanut Basins may have been coextensive units that were offset by the Straight Creek Fault (SCF), implying a total dextral offset of 160-190 km. This hypothesis is supported by middle Eocene drag folds in the Swauk Formation, tectonic slices and slivers of
169 7. Chuckanut Basin
Chuckanut/Swauk-like rocks in the SCF, and the presence of large fault-controlled basins in the SCF zone filled with Chuckanut/Swauk-like rocks (Johnson, 1982). From the isotopic perspective, it is difficult to deduce basin evolution histories. Indeed the oxygen isotope values of the Swauk and the Chuckanut Basins exhibit the same range; however, this isotopic range is very large and also covers isotopic values of other formations (Fig.
23). Stable isotope data from Washington basin records (Fig. 23) suggest that the majority of samples experienced elevated temperature conditions or high water/rock ratios during carbonate formation in thermally altered groundwaters. Based on our findings in the Chumstick Basin (Chapter 5), it seems very likely, that local basin burial conditions dominate the isotopic record and hinder the direct statements about the regional basin evolution. However, we could show that by using clumped isotope, stable isotope, vitrinite reflectance and thermochronology data it is possible to deduce ancient groundwater isotope compositions. Thus, there is a great potential to apply this multi-proxy approach to samples from the Swauk and Chuckanut basins in order to enlarge our knowledge about Paleogene groundwater compositions, which in turn, can be indicative of meteoric water compositions and groundwater sources.
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175 Tables
Tables
Tab. 1. Overview of sampling localities.
Basin/Section Sample type comment coordinates number
of samples Longitude (W) Latitude (N)
MONTANA Sage Creek Basin
Cook Ranch Pedogenic carbonates Start of section End of section
112°34.558 112°34.494
44°44.208
44°45.284 n = 130
Cook Ranch Reworked ash 112°34.558 44°44.208 n = 1
Upper Sage Creek Pedogenic carbonates 112°35.860 44°45.517 n = 7
Upper Sage Creek Reworked ash 112°35.763 44°45.462 n = 1
Lower Sage Creek Pedogenic carbonates 112°35.490 44°44.511 n = 5
Lower Sage Creek Reworked ash 112°35.513 44°44.500 n = 1
Muddy Creek Basin
Section 2b and 2c * Pedogenic carbonates Start of section End of section
112°50.154 112°49.975
44°40.112
44°40.202 n = 146
Section 2c * Volcanic ash 12-KM-509 112°49.990 44°40.220 n = 1
Section 5 * Volcanic ash 12-KM-494 112°51.704 44°38.767 n = 1
Section 5 * Volcanic ash 12-KM-495 112°51.534 44°39.013 n = 1
Section 5 * Volcanic ash 12-KM-496 112°51.333 44°39.081 n = 1
Kishenehn Basin
Section 1 pedogenic carbonates Start of section 113°36.583 48°18.022 n = 68 Section 2 lacustrine carbonates Start of section
End of section
113°40.369 113°40.343
48°22.303
48°22.382 n = 48 WASHINGTON
Chumstick Basin
Blue Grade carbonate concretions
and micritic carbonate 120°17.521 47°28.268 n = 10
Swauk Basin
Old Blewett Pass carbonate concretions Start of section End of section
120°39.510 120°39.196
47°23.139
47°22.396 n = 56 Red Bridge carbonate concretions Start of section
End of section
120°46.911 120°46.920
47°12.097
47°12.084 n = 41 Western Fork of
Teanaway River
carbonate concretions Start of section End of section
120°55.954 120°55.973
47°15.726
47°15.737 n = 9 Middle Fork of
Teanaway River
carbonate concretions Start of section End of section
120°55.563 120°54.254
47°16.969
47°16.241 n = 14
Roslyn carbonate concretions 120°39.196 47°22.396 n = 4
Chuckanut Basin
Lake Whatcom carbonate concretions Start of section End of section
122°18.875 122°18.896
48°41.685
48°41.675 n = 4 Glacier carbonate concretions Start of section
End of section
121°55.222 121°54.974
48°51.435
48°51.441 n = 13 Canyon Creek carbonate concretions Start of section
End of section
121°58.353 121°58.332
48°54.946
48°54.924 n = 18 Slide Mountain carbonate concretions Start of section
End of section
122°02.062 122°02.764
48°53.077
48°53.910 n = 24
*after Dunlap, D., 1982, Tertiary geology of the Muddy Creek basin, Beaverhead County, Montana.
University of Montana, Missoula, p. 133.
Tab. 2. Stable isotope data of the Cook Ranch member (Sage Creek Basin), grouped by lithologies.
δ18O δ13C CaCO3
number of samples
lithology mean StDev mean StDev mean StDev
[‰. VSMOW] [‰. VPDB] [%]
Nodules 15.8 1.4 -4.0 1.2 46 7 n = 68
Caliches 14.9 1.4 -3.6 1.0 40 7 n = 44
Root casts/
Burrows 16.4 1.0 -4.1 0.2 39 4 n = 6
Siltstones/Matrix 14.9 1.7 -4.0 1.2 39 14 n = 5
Concretions 16.8 0.8 -3.6 0.3 43 7 n = 7
all samples 15.5 1.5 -3.9 1.1 43 8 n = 130
Tab. 3. Stable isotope data of section 1 of the Kishenehn Basin, grouped by lithologies.
δ18O δ13C CaCO3
number of samples
lithology mean StDev mean StDev mean StDev
[‰. VSMOW] [‰. VPDB] [%]
Section 1
Burrows 18.2 0.3 -5.1 0.3 7 5 n = 4
Nodules 17.1 0.7 -5.3 1.1 42 27 n = 8
Sandstones 14.6 2.6 -4.9 1.1 15 5 n = 11
Siltstones 15.5 2.7 -4.8 1.2 15 8 n = 10
Mudstones/Marls 17.4 2.4 -4.4 1.5 15 17 n = 34
all samples 16.7 2.6 -4.6 1.4 17 18 n = 68
Section 2
Paper shales 21.4 1.5 5.4 2.4 28 8 n = 25
Mudstones 21.0 1.9 6.0 2.5 28 8 n = 22
all samples 21.3 1.7 5.8 2.6 29 11 n = 47
Tab. 4. Stable isotope data of the Swauk Basin, grouped by lithologies.
δ18O δ13C CaCO3
number of samples
lithology mean StDev mean StDev mean StDev
[‰. VSMOW] [‰. VPDB] [%]
Swauk Fm.
Concretions 13.5 1.4 -4.9 5.3 21 8 n = 6
Sandstones 11.9 1.1 -9.3 0.9 6 1 n = 47
all samples 13.3 1.5 -5.4 5.2 20 9 n = 53
Roslyn Fm.
Ronald 8.3 1.6 -6.7 3.3 20 5 n = 4
Red Bridge 13.4 2.7 -12.8 2.4 26 6 n = 41
Western Fork 10.0 2.0 -11.8 5.2 14 7 n = 9
Middle Fork 10.4 1.7 -17.5 3.5 20 5 n = 12
all samples 12.0 3.0 -13.1 4.1 22 7 n = 69
177 Tables
Tab. 5. Stable isotope data of the Chuckanut Basin, grouped by lithologies.
δ18O δ13C CaCO3
number of samples
lithology mean StDev mean StDev mean StDev
[‰. VSMOW] [‰. VPDB] [%]
Bellingham Bay member
Lake Whatcom 16.0 1.4 4.4 2.8 35 31 n = 4
Glacier 17.6 0.2 -8.9 2.1 54 24 n = 10
all samples 17.1 1.1 -5.1 6.5 49 28 n = 14
Slide member.
Canyon Creek 12.0 0.7 -0.6 3.7 10 8 n = 18
Slide Mountain 12.6 0.9 0.1 1.8 16 9 n = 24
all samples 12.3 0.9 -0.2 2.8 13 9 n = 42
Figures
Fig. 1. Topographic map of the western United States, showing the sampling localities of field seasons 2011 and 2012 in Washington (Chuckanut, Swauk, and Chumstick basins) and Montana (Sage Creek, Muddy Creek and Kishenehn basins).
179 Figures
Fig. 2. (A) Simplified geological map of southwestern Montana (MT) and adjacent Idaho (ID), USA (after Janecke, 2007). Abbreviations for basins (yellow shading) and faults:
GB = Grasshopper Basin, HPB = Horse Prairie Basin, MMLB = Montana Medicine Lodge Basin, SCB = Sage Creek Basin, MCB = Muddy Creek Basin, NCB = Nicolia Creek Basin; MLF = Meriwether Lewis Fault, MGF = Muddy-Grasshopper Detachment Fault, BTF = Blacktail Fault, MPF = Maiden Peak Fault, MF = Monument Hill Fault, RRF = Red Rock Fault, DF = Deadman Fault, BF = Beaverhead Fault. (B) Geological map of southwestern Montana, USA. Yellow boxes mark the sampling locality of the upper and lower units of the Sage Creek Formation and the Cook Ranch member (modified after Lonn et al., 2000).
Fig. 3. 40Ar/39Ar geochronology results. (A-C) Age spectra from a reworked tuffaceous ash bed from the upper unit of the Sage Creek Formation: spectrum A (11KM-090.2) shows a major component of a ~49-Ma-old biotite population, whereas spectrum B (11KM-090.3) has an age of 56.2 ±3.1 Ma (over 98 % of released 39Ar). Spectrum C (11KM-090.1) is consistent with a mixture of a 49-Ma-old population and a 56-Ma-old population. (D) A 43.1 ±0.8 Ma age spectrum is derived from a reworked tuffaceous bed at the base of the Cook Ranch section. Thus, this age gives a maximum age of the section, which is in agreement of paleomagnetic and biostratigraphic results from this section (Tabrum et al., 1996).
181 Figures
Fig. 4. (A) Oxygen isotope (δ18O in ‰ against VSMOW), (B) carbon isotope (δ13C in ‰ against VPDB) and (C) carbonate content (in %) data of the upper and lower unit of the Sage Creek Formation. (D) Covariance plot of oxygen and carbon isotopic values of the upper and lower unit of the Sage Creek Formation.