Allpix 2

According to the project’s website, the Allpix² (or Allpix-Squared) framework [91] is a

”Generic Pixel Detector Simulation Framework”. It uses the Geant4 simulation soft-ware [92, 93] for the simulation of particle interactions with matter and has individual modules to simulate various properties, e.g. charge diffusion and drift, signal creation and detection, digitisation, and many other processes.

One of the aims of Allpix² is simulation of set-ups used in test beam measurements.

This makes it a useful tool to study the impact of the set-up on a simulation level as well as to validate the reconstruction and analysis techniques. In particular, Allpix² is a very powerful tool, if the Monte-Carlo truth information, i.e. the true particle’s trajectory within the telescope, is exported and used to compare to reconstructed data. Prior to the modifications and extensions to Allpix², this was possible to a certain extent. The true spatial positions of deposited charge were available in the framework. However, neither the interface to EUTelescope, i.e. the export into the LCIO format, nor the full track information, i.e. which track a charge deposition in the material belongs to, was correctly implemented.

8.2.1. Objects and Terminology

An Allpix² MCParticle (for: Monte-Carlo particle) is the representation of a charged particle crossing a detector. In particular, the information it holds are the entry and exit points into the detector volume.

The Allpix² MCTrack is the supplementing class which has been introduced in the context of this thesis when expanding the functionality of Allpix². It stores information on the production process of a particle’s trajectory, i.e. the physical process which created it, the volume and position where this happened, the initial and final kinetic as well as total energy.

Both these classes, theMCParticle and MCTrack, carry links to other objects. Most important are the links between MCParticles and their associated MCTrack. Further-more, MCTracks can have a parent MCTrack from which they originate. Combining this information, the full track hierarchy can be obtained and reconstructed. This is depicted in Figure 8.12. It can be seen that AllpixPixelHitobjects are also in the shown hierarchy. They are the result of the digitisation step and correspond to detected charge

by a pixel inside a detector. Both theMCParticlesand thePixelHitsare associated with a given detector, unlike the MCTracks which are not linked to any detector.

MCParticle

MCTrack

MCParticle

MCParticle MCParticle

MCTrack MCParticle PixelHit

detector 1 detector 2 detector 3 detector 4

Figure 8.12.: The Monte-Carlo objects in Allpix²reflecting the truth trajectory of a particle passing through the detectors. The red boxes indicate PixelHit objects.

The picture shows a case of a four detector set-up, where a single particle passes through all the detectors and in the fourth detector a secondary particle is created. This explains why a single PixelHit can be associated with multiple MCParticles. A delta ray can, and probably will, deposit energy in the same pixel cell as the originally passing particle¹.

Disentangling the PixelHits which are linked to multiple MCParticles is difficult. For example there could be the hypothetical case where two particles each induce four arbi-trary units of charge. The detector is tuned to only detect charges higher than six units.

In this case, the detector will detect a hit only due to the interplay of both particles. As a result, there is no definition of what fraction of a PixelHit contributed to a given MC-Particle, just the information that there was a contribution. This leads to ambiguities in the truth level description.

In addition to the implementation of the MCTracks and mechanism to correctly extract and track the information from the Geant4 simulation, test cases have been implemented to validate the MCTrack within Allpix² also in the future.

8.2.2. LCIO Data Export

In addition to implementing the mentioned features, the information needs to be ex-tracted into EUTelescope. The example sketched in Figure 8.12 is again shown in Fig-ure 8.13 focussed on how it is reflected in LCIO. Aside from the collection for the raw data (shown at the bottom), there are three collections which are exported if the option to fully export the Monte-Carlo truth data is enabled.

The MCTrack objects are exported as LCIO::Track objects and stored within a collec-tion in the output file. Contrary to the situacollec-tion in Allpix², in LCIO the tracks have a connection to the LCIO::TrackerHit objects, and not vice versa. The LCIO::TrackerHits

1Technically, the production of a delta electron by definition is already a deposition of energy and the key issue is to what MCParticle this is associated. The net physical effect of an induced signal is unaffected by this.

TrackerHit

Track

TrackerHit

TrackerHit TrackerHit

Track TrackerHit TrackerData

TrackerPulse

duplicated duplicated

TrackerData

mc_tracks mc_hits

mc_clusters

raw_data Collection:

Figure 8.13.: Reflection of the Allpix²objects within LCIO. See Table 5.1 for an overview of the used LCIO objects.

correspond to the MCParticles and are stored in a collection corresponding to truth hits. All PixelHits which link to the same MCParticle are considered to be a cluster.

If a PixelHit links to multiple MCParticles, the PixelHit is assumed to belong to both clusters. The PixelHit objects are represented by LCIO::TrackerData objects. In or-der to represent truth clusters, PixelHits with multiple MCParticles are duplicated in this process and are stored together with an LCIO::TrackerPulse collection in the LCIO output file, representing the cluster.

Ultimately, the unmodified and unsorted PixelHits are also exported as LCIO::Trac-erData in an LCIO collection, corresponding to the detector’s simulated response. This last collection is also exported if the option to export Monte-Carlo truth data is disabled, as it is the simulation output.

Additionally, the GEAR file with the precise alignment is exported.

8.2.3. Alignment Validation

In order to validate the new alignment schemes, discussed in Section 7.2.2, Allpix² was employed. A single Mimosa26-like detector, displaced 10 mm along the beam axis away from the coordinate systems origin, was used. No further displacements or rotations were set, i.e. all were at 0. Allpix² allows to specify an uncertainty in the alignment.

In particular, a σ of a Gaussian distribution can be provided and a smearing with a randomly drawn perturbation value from that distribution is simulated². Rotations were smeared with σ_rot = 1^◦ and displacements along the x- and y-axis with σ_x/y = 50µm.

For the z-axis (beam axis) aσ_z= 1mm was used. This resulted in a rotation of≈ −1.2^◦ around the x-axis,≈1.1^◦ around the y-axis and ≈0.6^◦ around the z-axis.

2This is specifically useful as it not only reflects an actual set-up more realistically, but also as the case of perfectly aligned sensors will (even more) correlate measurements on the different sensors.

To validate the alignment, the Monte-Carlo truth hits in the exported LCIO file (la-belled mc_hits in Figure 8.13) were compared with hits derived from the simulated detector response (raw_data). In order to do this, the simulated pixel hits were clus-tered, the hit positions derivation performed and ultimately they were exported into the global coordinate frame using the exported GEAR file. The Monte-Carlo truth hits are already in the global reference frame, hence the comparison of the reconstructed and transformed hits with the Monte-Carlo hits will validate the alignment.

In order to verify the impact, i.e. to show that the smearing is sufficient to detect a deviation if the alignment is carried out wrongly, a GEAR file with the rotations set to half their nominal value as well as one where they were set to 0^◦, was used. A sample with a single hit in each event is used and a pre-selection to discard events in which a secondary particle is produced is applied. A narrow beam, centred in the middle of the sensor, with no divergence, is simulated. The differences between the reconstructed and derived hits and the Monte-Carlo hits are shown as residuals in Figure 8.14 for the x-direction.

In Subfigure 8.14a the alignment with the angles set to 0^◦ are shown, in 8.14b the angles are set to half their nominal values and ultimately the correct alignment is used in 8.14c. The nominal pixel pitch of 18.4 µm is indicated in the plots as well. In first approximation, a boxed distribution with the pixels pitch is expected, in particular if there is no beam divergence and there are mostly single-hit clusters.

As expected from the isotropy in x- and y-direction, the distribution for the y-direction is similar and shows consisting results. The z-direction distributions are shown for the case of all angles set to 0^◦ as well as the correct alignment. Subfigure 8.15b shows that the z-coordinate is consistently set by the simulation and reconstruction.

Aside from validations of the alignment, the newly implemented functionality has been used in the context of a bachelor’s thesis to start validating track finding routines within the GBL implementation [94]. Also, Allpix² simulated data have also been used to verify processors like the noisy pixel determination.