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Uncertainty and the Choice of Policy Instruments for Meeting an Environmental Quality Standard

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NOT FOR QUOTATION WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR

UNCERTAINTY AND THE CHOICE OF POLICY INSTRUMENTS FOR MEETING AN

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARD

R o b e r t J. A n d e r s o n , J r .

November 1 9 8 0 WP-80-163

K o r k i n g P a p e r s a r e i n t e r i m r e p o r t s o n w o r k o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r A p p l i e d S y s t e m s A n a l y s i s a n d h a v e r e c e i v e d o n l y l i m i t e d r e v i e w . V i e w s o r o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d h e r e i n do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e - s e n t t h o s e of t h e I n s t i t u t e o r of i t s N a t i o n a l Member O r g a n i z a t i o n s .

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS A-2361 L a x e n b u r g , A u s t r i a

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PREFACE

Broadly s t a t e d , t h e r e a r e t h r e e s t e p s i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y management. These a r e ( 1 ) s e l e c t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n - a r d s , ( 2 ) d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f e a s i b l e programs f o r r e d u c i n g d i s c h a r g e s t o t h e environment o r f o r i n c r e a s i n g i t s a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s , and ( 3 ) i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a p o l i c y t o b r i n g a b o u t d i s c h a r g e reduc- t i o n s a n d / o r e x p a n s i o n of a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t y .

Much o f R E N f s r e s e a r c h program h a s been d e v o t e d t o s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t a n a l y s i s o f t h e e f f e c t s of d i s c h a r g e s on e n v i r o n m e n t a l s y s t e m s and m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s y s t e m s t h a t c o u l d be made t o enhance s y s t e m s l a b i l i t i e s t o a s s i m i l a t e d i s c h a r g e s . For example, c a s e s t u d i e s of Lake B a l a t o n i n Hungary and Attersee and N e u s i e d l e r s e e i n A u s t r i a have advanced t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t of modeling w a t e r q u a l i t y and a r e p r o v i d i n ? a menu o f f e a s i b l e pro- grams f o r managing t h e q u a l i t y of t h e s e l a k e s .

Subsequent REN s t u d i e s w i l l b u i l d on t h e s e modeling e f f o r t s t o e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e management p l a n s and p o l i c i e s . T h i s work- i n g p a p e r i s t h e f i r s t of a series of r e p o r t s t h a t a r e planned t o r e s u l t from t h e s e e f f o r t s . I t c o n s i d e r s t h e problem o f c h o o s i n g a p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t ( i . e . a means t o implement e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l - i t y s t a n d a r d s ) t h a t i s b o t h e f f e c t i v e ( i .e. w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e en- v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d b e i n g m e t ) and e f f i c i e n t ( i . e . w i l l m e e t s t a n d a r d a t l e a s t c o s t ) . Three a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s are c o n s i d e r e d . These a r e ( 1 ) e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s , which p r e s c r i b e maximum a l l o w a b l e r a t e s o f d i s c h a r g e s o f p o l l u t a n t s t o the e n v i r o n - ment, ( 2 ) e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s , which p r e s c r i b e payments t h a t emitters must make p e r u n i t o f p o l l u t i o n d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , and

( 3 ) t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s , which e n t i t l e t h e i r h o l d e r t o a f a c e v a l u e q u a n t i t y of e m i s s i o n s , and which may be t r a n s f e r r e d among e m i t t e r s .

iii

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REN's analyses of specific environmental management problems dramatically illustrate that uncertainty pervades the modeling and management process. Until recently, this fact of the modeling and management problem (i.e. uncertainty) was largely ignored in studies of the policy instrument question. This paper builds on the recent literature to show how, in the presence of uncertainty, policy might best be fashioned to meet an environmental uuality standard efficiently.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

H e l p f u l comments and s u g g e s t i o n s from C a r s o n E. Agnew, J e s s e A u s u b e l , J a n u s z K i n d l e r , and P a u l P o r t n e y a r e g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged. None i s t o b e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e t o any e r r o r s , a m b i g u i t i e s , o r o t h e r f a u l t s t h a t may remain.

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TABLE O F CONTENTS

1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N

2 . A S I M P L E DIAGRAMMATIC A N A L Y S I S 3. A MATHEMATICAL A N A L Y S I S

3 . 1 F o r m u l a t i o n 3 . 2 A n a l y s i s 3 . 3 R e s u l t s

4 . CONCLUDING COMMENTS

R E F E R E N C E S

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UNCERTAINTY AND THE CHOICE OF P O L I C Y

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEETING AN

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARD

R o b e r t J . Anderson, J r .

1 . INTRODUCTION

S e v e r a l p a p e r s have examined t h e e f f e c t o f u n c e r t a i n t y on th.e c h o i c e of p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s .

*

These p a p e r s have shown t h a t t h e o p t i m a l p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t ( i . e . t h e p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t - - i n c l u d i n g e m i s s i o n t a x e s , e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s , o r t r a n s - f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s - - t h a t maximizes e x p e c t e d n e t s o c i a l bene- f i t s ) depends upon t h e s p e c i f i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s a t hand. I n p a r t i c - u l a r , i t h a s been shown t h a t when t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t s and x a r g i n a l b e n e f i t s o£ p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l are u n c e r t a i n , t h e t y p e o f p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t t h a t maximizes e x p e c t e d n e t s o c i a l b e n e f i t s depends upon t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t and m a r g i n a l b e n e f i t func- t i o n s , and t h e form i n which randomness e n t e r s t h e model.

I n p r a c t i c e , t h e p r o c e s s by which most e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y t a r g e t s a r e s e t d.oes n o t i n v o l v e a n a t t e m p t t o maximize e x p e c t e d s o c i a l b e n e f i t s from u s e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s o u r c e s . R a t h e r , q u a l - i t y s t a n d a r d s a r e s e t b a s e d upon o t h e r c r i t e r i a s u c h as t h e pro- t e c t i o n o f t h e h e a l t h o f t h e most s u s c e p t i b l e s e g m e n t s o f t h e po- p u l a t i o n , w i t h a n a d e q u a t e m a r g i n of s a f e t y .

T h i s p a p e r examines t h e e f f e c t o f u n c e r t a i n t y on t h e c h o i c e o f p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s i n c a s e s i n which t h e o b j e c t i v e i s t o f i n d

--- -

*

See Adar and G r i f f i n (1976), F i s h e l s o n (1976)

,

and Yohe (1976)

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a p o l i c y t h a t minimizes t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t o f meeting a g i v e n e n v i r o n - m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . These c a s e s , a s n o t e d above, t y p i f y t h e p o l i c y problem when q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s a r e b a s e d , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , on non-economic c r i t e r i a .

Our a n a l y s i s w i l l show t h a t r a t h e r d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be r e a c h e d c o n c e r n i n g o p t i m a l p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s f o r m i n i m i z i n g e x p e c t e d c o s t s of m e e t i n g an e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t two p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s - - e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s and t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s - - w i l l always meet q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s a t lower e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t t h a n w i l l an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y . We w i l l a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t imple- m e n t a t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s v i a e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s o r t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r c e r t a i n t y t h a n does i m p l e m e n t a t i o n v i a a n e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y t h a t e n v i r o n - m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s w i l l be m e t . Thus, i f one w i s h e s t o a d o p t a p o l i c y t h a t minimizes e x p e c t e d c o s t s o f meeting a q u a l i t y s t a n - d a r d w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h d e g r e e of c e r t i t u d e , t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s - s i o n p e r m i t s a r e t h e b e s t o f t h e t h r e e p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s examined.

The p l a n of t h e p a p e r i s a s f o l l o w s . I n S e c t i o n 2 w e examine a s i m p l e diagrammatic model t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n a comparison o f p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s t o m e e t e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s when t h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y . S e c t i o n 3 g e n e r a l i z e s t h i s a n a l y s i s by d e r i v i n g e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same r e s u l t s i n a more g e n e r a l m a t h e m a t i c a l framework. S e c t i o n 4 o f f e r s some c o n c l u d i n g comments.

2 . A SIMPLE DIAGRAMMATIC ANALYSIS

To b e g i n , l e t u s examine a s i m p l e c a s e i n which t h e r e a r e two p o l l u t i o n s o u r c e s ( i . e . two " e m i t t e r s " ) and one p o i n t a t which an e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d must be met ( i . e . one " r e c e p t o r " ) . W e assume t h a t t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y i s u n c e r t a i n a b o u t one o f t h e e m i t t e r ' s (which w e s h a l l c a l l " E m i t t e r 1 " below) c o s t s o f c o n t r o l l i n g e m i s s i o n s . The a u t h o r i t y i s assumed t o know e x a c t l y

( i . e . w i t h o u t u n c e r t a i n t y ) t h e o t h e r e m i t t e r ' s e . , " E m i t t e r 2 " ) c o n t r o l c o s t s and t h e d i f f u s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t r e l a t e u n i t s of e m i s s i o n s from b o t h of the emitters t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o l - l u t i o n a t t h e s i n g l e r e c e p t o r s i t e .

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T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 1 b e l o w , w h e r e w e h a v e shown E m i t t e r 1 ' s m a r g i n a l c o s t o f e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l c u r v e s . I n d r a w i n g t h i s f i g u r e , w e h a v e assumed t h a t E m i t t e r 1 ' s m a r g i n a l c o s t o f c o n t r o l c u r v e may t a k e o n o n e o f two v a l u e s , shown r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e c u r v e s C ( u l ) a n d C ( u 2 )

,

where u i s a random v a r i a b l e .

*

The d o t t e d c u r v e C 1 - C r e p r e s e n t s E m i t t e r 2 ' s m a r g i n a l c o s t c u r v e . W e h a v e d e n o t e d t h e optimum ( i . e . , l e a s t c o s t ) l e v e l s o f e m i s s i o n s from E m i t t e r 1 t h a t a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e e n v i r o n - m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d by t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e s

G l

a n d

G 2

i n t h e

f i g u r e . The f o r m e r ,

-

e l , r e p r e s e n t s t h e optimum l e v e l o f E m i t t e r 1 ' s e m i s s i o n s i f t h e random v a r i a b l e u t a k e s o n t h e v a l u e u , , a n d

G 2

r e p r e s e n t s t h e e m i t t e r ' s optimum l e v e l o f e m i s s i o n s i f u t a k e s on t h e v a l u e u 2 .

**

The p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y d o e s n o t know i n a d v a n c e which v a l u e u w i l l t a k e o n s o i t c a n n o t s e t e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s , a quan- t i t y o f m a r k e t a b l e p e r m i t s , o r e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s t h a t w i l l b e e x -

a c t l y c o r r e c t , e x c e p t by a c c i d e n t . R a t h e r , t h e b e s t i t c a n hope t o do i s t o f i n d a p o l i c y t h a t i s b e s t i n some a v e r a g e s e n s e . T h i s i n - d e e d i s a s e n s i b l e o b j e c t i v e f o r it t o p u r s u e . W e s h a l l assume t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t c h o s e n b y t h e a u t h o r i t y , i t s g o a l i s t o m i n i m i z e e x p e c t e d ( i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l s e n s e ) costs sub- ject t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t t h a t e x p e c t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p o l l u t i o n i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t d o e s n o t e x c e e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s .

I f t h i s i s t h e o b j e c t i v e p u r s u e d by t h e a g e n c y , a n d i f i t c h o o s e s r e g u l a t i o n f o r i t s p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t , t h e n i t c a n b e shown

h

t h a t it w i l l s e t a n e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d , e , i n s i d e t h e r a n g e o f v a 1 v . e ~ o f optimum e m i s s i o n s l e v e l s u n d e r a l t e r n a t i v e p o s s i b l e c o s t c o n d i - t i o n s ( i - e . , b e t w e e n

el

a n d

e 2 ) .

The e x a c t l e v e l s o f t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s t h a t w i l l m i n i m i z e e x p e c t e d c o s t s s u b j e c t s t o t h e e n v i r o n - m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d d e p e n d s upon t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e u n c e r t a i n m a r g i n a l c o n t r o l c o s t f u n c t i o n , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l

*

The l i n e a r i t y o f t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t o f c o n t r o l c u r v e s i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s e c o n d o r d e r t e r m s from a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e unknown t o t a l c o s t r e l a t i o n s h i p . The a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e s l o p e o f t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t o f c o n t r o l c u r v e i s known; u n c e r t a i n t y i n v o l v e s o n l y t h e i n t e r c e p t . S e e a l s o S e c t i o n s - 3 and 4 .

** -

T h a t i s , e l i s t h e l e v e l o f E m i t t e r 1 's e m i s s i o n s t h a t e q u a t e s t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t s o f p o l l u t i o n r e d u c t i o n f r o m E m i t t e r s 1 a n d 2 i f

u = u l ;

-

e 2 i s t h e l e v e l t h a t a c h i e v e s t h i s i f u = u2. E m i t t e r 2 ' s e m i s s i o n s a r e a d j u s t e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y t o i n s u r e t h a t i t s m a r g i n a l c o s t o f p o l l u t i o n r e d u c t i o n i s e q u a l t o E m i t t e r 1 ' s m a r g i n a l c o s t o f p o l l u t i o n r e d u c t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e p o l l u t i o n s t a n d a r d i s m e t .

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Legend :

u = random variable with values u, or u2.

e = optimal emission standard if u is unknown.

= optimal emissions charge if u is unknown.

Til = optimal emissions if u = ul.

-

e2 = optimal emissions if u = u2.

U el = resulting emissions if emissions charge u issetatpandu=ul.

rCI e2 = resulting emissions if emissions charge u is set a t p and u = u2.

Emissions

F i g u r e 1 . D i a g r a m m a t i c A n a l y s i s o f t h e E f f e c t o f U n c e r t a i n t y o n P o l i c y I n s t r u m e n t C h o i c e .

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q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d , and t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i f f u s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t r e l a t e e m i s s i o n s t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p o l l u - t a n t s .

Wehave drawn $ i n F i g u r e 1 a s t h o u g h i t f e l l p r e c i s e l y mid- way b e t w e e n

el

a n d

e2.

T h i s would o c c u r i n f a c t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n shown i n w h i c h P r o b a b i l i t y ( u = u l ) = P r o b a b i l i t y ( u = u 2 ) = 0 . 5 , i f

t h e d i f f u s i o n p a r a m e t e r s t r a n s l a t i n g t h e e m i s s i o n s o f e a c h

s o u r c e i n t o a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t t h e assumed r e c e p t o r w e r e e q u a l , and if t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t f u n c t i o n o f E m i t t e r 2 (shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e C ' - C " i n F i g u r e 1 ) f e l l e x a c t l y h a l f w a y b e t w e e n t h e two m a r g i n a l c o s t f u n c t i o n s shown f o r E m i t t e r 1 . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d f o r E m i t t e r 2 would a l s o be s e t a t t h e l e v e l i2.

If t h e a u t h o r i t y d e c i d e s t o i m p l e m e n t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d v i a a n e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d , i t o b v i o u s l y w i l l be c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e r e s u l t i n g l e v e l of e m i s s i o n s .

*

E m i t t e r 1 ( a n d E m i t t e r 2 ) w i l l e m i t

g.

If d i f f u s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e known w i t h c e r t a i n t y ( a s w e h a v e assumed h e r e ) , t h i s a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y , if i t r e s o r t e d t o u s e o f e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s , would be a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e a m b i e n t s t a n d a r d would be m e t .

T h i s c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e m i s s i o n s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y comes a t a c o s t . I n s p e c t i o n o f F i g u r e 1 shows t h a t w h i l e t h e a u t h o r i t y would be c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e c o s t s o f c o n t r o l i n c u r r e d by E m i t t e r 2 , E m i t t e r 1

'

s cpsts c o u l d e i t h e r be a n amount g i v e n by t h e t r i a n g l e 6 R C ( u , ) , o r a somewhat l a r g e r amount g i v e n b y t h e t r i a n g l e 6 R 1 C ( u 2 ) . Which c o s t i n f a c t i s i n c u r r e d w i l l I depend upon t h e unknown ( t o t h e a u t h o r i t y ) v a l u e t a k e n o n by t h e random v a r i a b l e u . The c o s t o f t h e c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e m i s s i o n s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y g u a r a n t e e d b y r e s o r t t o t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t i s t h u s t h a t t h e c o s t s i n c u r r e d f o r c o n t r o l a r e u n c e r t a i n , and may t u r n o u t t o b e v e r y l a r g e .

A s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s , t h e a u t h o r i t y m i g h t s e e k t o s e t c h a r g e s o n e m i s s i o n s t h a t w o u l d m i n i m i z e e x p e c t e d c o s t a n d would a c h i e v e e x p e c t e d a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

e q u a l t o t h e s t a n d a r d l e v e l . Such a c h a r g e i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 1 by t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e , p .

-

Under t h i s c h a r g e , E m i t t e r 1 ' s e m i s s i o n s a r e u n c e r t a i n . They w i l l e i t h e r b e G 2 o r S 1 , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e

*

W e assume c o s t l e s s m o n i t o r i n g .

(11)

v a l u e t a k e n on by u.

*

T h i s means t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y a l s o i s u n c e r t a i n . I f u t a k e s o n t h e v a l u e u 2 , t h e n

r e s u l t i n g p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l exceed t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a n d a r d . I f , however, i t t a k e s on t h e v a l u e u l , p o l l u t i o n con- c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l b e l o w e r t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d l e v e l . The c h a r g e l e v e l i s s e t s o t h a t i f w e t o o k t h e e x p e c t e d ( a v e r a g e ) v a l u e o f t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t f u n c t i o n s f o r E m i t t e r 1 (which i s e q u a l t o C ' - C ) , t h e r e s u l t i n g e m i s s i o n s would s a t i s f y t h e a m b i e n t con- s t r a i n t .

While a c h a r g e p o l i c y r e s u l t s , as shown a b o v e , i n u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , i t r e s u l t s i n p e r f e c t c e r t a i n t y a b o u t c o s t s . T h i s c a n b e s e e n b y e x a m i n i n g t o t a l c o s t s u n d e r a c h a r g e p o l i c y a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 . I f u t a k e s on t h e V a l u e u2 t h e n t o t a l c o s t s are g i v e n by t h e a r e a o f t h e t r i a n g l e G 2 B C ( u 2 ) . I f u t a k e s o n t h e v a l u e u l , t h e n t o t a l c o s t s are g i v e n b y t h e a r e a of t h e t r i a n g l e B1 B ' C ( u l )

.

These two t r i a n g l e s , it c a n b e shown, have p r e c i s e l y t h e same a r e a . Hence, w e c o n c l u d e t h a t no matter which v a l u e u t a k e s , t o t a l c o s t s w i l l b e t h e same amount.

**

Thus t h e r e ' i s no u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t o t a l c o n t r o l c o s t .

To t h i s p o i n t w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d two p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s , emis- s i o n s t a n d a r d s and e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s , which a c h i e v e e x p e c t e d e n - . v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e q u a l t o an e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . W e h a v e shown t h a t u s e o f t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n - d a r d p o l i c y r e s u l t s i n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e m i s s i o n s and a m b i e n t con- c e n t r a t i o n s , and u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t c o s t s . U s e o f t h e e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t , i n c o n t r a s t , r e s u l t s i n u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e m i s s i o n s a n d a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , and c e r t a i n t y a b o u t c o s t s .

The f i n a l s t e p o f o u r c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s e two p o l i c y i n s t r u - ments i s t o examine t h e i r e x p e c t e d c o s t s . To d o t h i s u s i n g o u r d i a - gram, w e must make u s e o f t h e s p e c i f i c a s s u m p t i o n s w e h a v e made

f o r t h i s example. E x p e c t e d c o s t s u n d e r t h e e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s a p p r o a c h

*

E m i t t e r 2 ' s e m i s s i o n s a t a c h a r g e o f

p ,

i n t h e c a s e d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 1 , would b e $,

* *

S e c t i o n 3 e x p l a i n s t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t u n c e r t a i n t y i n c o s t t h a t l e a d t o t h i s r e s u l t .

(12)

a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o compute s i n c e , under o u r a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e c h a r g e p o l i c y removes u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t c o s t s . E m i t t e r 1 ' s e x p e c t e d c o s t s u n d e r t h e c h a r g e p o l i c y a r e s i m p l y S2B C ( u 2 ) , o r e l B I C ( u l ) (which a r e e q u a l ) . These a r e e q u a l t o

-

$ B"C, which i s t h e a r e a we s h a l l u s e t o compare t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t s o f a c h a r g e p o l i c y w i t h t h o s e o f a r e g u l a t o r y p o l i c y . E m i t t e r 2 " s e x p e c t e d c o s t o f c o n t r o l , i n t h e c a s e d e p i c t e d , i s a l s o @B"C.

E m i t t e r 1 ' s e x p e c t e d c o s t s u n d e r t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s

a p p r o a c h a r e g i v e n by o n e - h a l f ( i . e . t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t u t a k e s on t h e v a l u e u l ) t i m e s t h e a r e a o f t h e t r i a n g l e @ R C ( u l ) ( i . e . t o t a l c o s t when u t a k e s o n t h e v a l u e u 2 ) . E m i t t e r 2 ' s c o s t s a r e

@B"C.

L e t t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t s R and R ' , and C ( u l ) and C ( u 2 ) , b e d e n o t e d by d . F u r t h e r , l e t t h e d i s t a n c e between

@ and R b e d e n o t e d by h and t h e d i s t a n c e between @ and C ( u l ) be d e n o t e d by b. L e t us a l s o n e g l e c t E m i t t e r 2 ' s c o s t s s i n c e

t h e y a r e t h e same amount ( i . e . @ B W C ) under b o t h p o l i c i e s . Then, we know, u s i n g t h e s p e c i f i c s b e h i n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f F i g u r e

1 t h a t t h e a r e a o f t h e t r i a n g l e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t s under e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s ( i g n o r i n g E m i t t e r 2 ' s c o s t s ) i s

E x p e c t e d C o s t Under E m i s s i o n Charge =

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

'

Area ( B B" C ) =

7

(b+ld) (hi-$) = Zbh

+

adh+adb%d-

The e x p e c t e d c o s t under e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s ( a g a i n i g n o r i n g

E m i t t e r 2 ' s c o s t s ) i s g i v e n by t h e w e i g h t e d ( b y t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e v a l u e s o f u ) a r e a s o f t h e two t r i - a n g l e s ( 6 3 C ( u l ) and (@ R ' C ( u 2 ) ) d e s c r i b e d above. T h i s e x p e c t e d v a l u e i s

E x p e c t e d C o s t Under E m i s s i o n S t a n d a r d s =

A comparison of t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t u n d e r e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s w i t h t h a t u n d e r e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s shows t h a t t h e f o r m e r i s s m a l l e r by

1 2

t h e amount g d ( i . e . ,

3

1 2 1 2 - g d ) .

(13)

T h a t i s , w e have shown ( a l b e i t u n d e r s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s which w e w i l l g e n e r a l i z e i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ) t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t o f i m p l e m e n t i n g o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a n d a r d v i a an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s a p p r o a c h i s less t h a n t h a t of implementing i t v i a a n e m i s -

s i o n , s t a n d a r d s a p p r o a c h . A s n o t e d a b o v e , however, u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t r e s u l t i n g e m i s s i o n s a n d a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s g r e a t e r u n d e r e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s t h a n i t i s under e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s .

To c o m p l e t e o u r a n a l y s i s , l e t u s c o n s i d e r p o s s i b l e outcomes o f a t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s a p p r o a c h . Our a s s u m p t i o n i n c o n d u c t i n g t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t E m i t t e r s 1 and 2 know t h e i r c o s t s o f c o n t r o l w i t h c e r t a i n t y , and r e v e a l them i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b u y i n g and s e l l i n g t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t s . . T h a t i s , t h e s c h e d u l e o f b i d s sub- m i t t e d by E m i t t e r 1 , u n d e r a t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t p o l i c y would b e e i t h e r

C ( u l ) o r C ( u 2 ) , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e v a l u e a c t u a l l y t a k e n by u , w h i l e E m i t t e r 2 would s u b m i t t h e s c h e d u l e o f b i d s C ' C . Note t h a t i f t h e b i d d i n g p r o c e s s o p e r a t e s a s w e have assumed, a t t h e t i m e t h e a u t h o r - i t y must a l l o c a t e p e r m i t s t o b i d d e r s , a l l u n c e r t a i n t y h a s b e e n re- moved. I n p a r t i c u l a r , it now knows what E m i t t e r 1's c o s t s a r e w i t h c e r t a i n t y . T h i s h a s two c o n s e q u e n c e s . F i r s t , it c a n b e a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f p e r m i t s c h o s e n i n f a c t w i l l minimize c o s t s . Moreover, b e f o r e b i d s a r e r e c e i v e d , the a u t h o r i t y knows t h a t a n

-

e x p o s t o p t i m a l d e c i s i o n w i l l b e made. T h u s , e x a n t e ( i . e . , be-

- -

f o r e b i d s a r e r e c e i v e d ) e x p e c t e d c o s t s u n d e r a t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t a p p r o a c h w i l l b e p r e c i s e l y t h e same a s t h o s e u n d e r a n e m i s s i o n c h a r g e a p p r o a c h .

The s e c o n d c o n s e q u e n c e o f knowing E m i t t e r 1 ' s c o s t s w i t h c e r - t a i n t y and a l l o c a t i n g p e r m i t s a c c o r d i n g l y i s t h a t u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t r e s u l t i n g e m i s s i o n s and a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s a l s o removed. The a u t h o r i t y c a n b e c e r t a i n o f e a c h e m i t t e r ' s e m i s s i o n l e v e l s .

Our s i m p l e d i a g r a m m a t i c a n a l y s i s t h u s l e a d s u s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d v i a t h e t r a n s f e r - a b l e p e r m i t s o r e m i s s i o n s c h a r g e p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s r e s u l t s i n l o w e r e x p e c t e d c o n t r o l c o s t s t h a n d o e s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n v i a e m i s s i o n s t a n - d a r d s . Moreover, t h e t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t s i n s t r u m e n t o f f e r s a s g r e a t c e r t a i n t y a b o u t r e s u l t i n g e m i s s i o n s and a m b i e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y as d o e s t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s i n s t r u m e n t , and b o t h r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y t h a n d o e s t h e e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s i n s t r u m e n t .

(14)

3. A MATHEMATICAL AiqALYSIS

W e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s more r i g o r o u s l y a n d ex- t e n d them a b i t by means o f a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e a n a l y s i s . T h i s a n a l y s i s p a r a l l e l s W e i t z m a n ' s ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n a l y s i s o f economic p l a n n i n g . 3.1 F o r m u l a t i o n

F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , i t i s h e l p f u l t o i n t r o d u c e a m o d e s t amount o f n o t a t i o n , a n d some s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s . Our b a s i c assump- t i o n s a r e t h e s e :

( a ) W e c o n f i n e o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e case o f a s i n g l e r e c e p t o r .

( b ) L e t C i ( e i , u i ) r e p r e s e n t t h e ith e m i t t e r ' s c o s t f u n c t i o n , w h e r e ei r e p r e s e n t s i t s q u a n t i t y o f p o l l u t a n t e m i s s i o n s , and ui i s a random v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g the c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y ' s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e e m i t t e r ' s c o s t s . C i ( e i , u i ) i s assumed t o b e t w i c e c o n t i n u o u s d i f f e r e n t i a b l e , a n d i t s d e r i v a - t i v e s a r e assumed t o p o s s e s s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r - t i e s : a c i ( e i , u i ) / a e i = Cil < 0 ; a C i ( e i , u i ) / a u i > 0 :

2 ~ i ( e i , ~ i ) h e . 1 aui > 0 ; a 2 c i ( u i ) / a e i 2 = cill > O . ( c ) L e t di ( v i ) r e p r e s e n t t h e u n c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t o f

p r o p o r t i o n r e l a t i n g u n i t s o f p o l l u t a n t e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e ith e m i t t e r t o a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n - t r a t i o n s a t a r e c e p t o r . " v

"

i s a random v a r i a b l e

i

r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a g e n c y ' s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e p o l l u t i o n d i f f u s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p .

( d l L e t w s " r e p r e s e n t a n a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n s t a n d a r d . (el E ( v i t u ) = E ( v i ) E ( u . ) = 0 , w h e r e E i s the mathe-

j I

m a t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n o p e r a t o r ; t h a t i s , t h e random v a r i a b l e s ui a n d v a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t

j f o r a l l i a n d j.

(£1 I n v i e w o f u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e d i f f u s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e a u t h o r i t y s e e k s c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s t h a t a c h i e v e e x p e c t e d a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e q u a l t o t h e a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n s t a n d a r d .

( g ) The e m i t t e r knows i t s c o n t r o l c o s t s w i t h c e r t a i n t y .

(15)

These assumptions a r e s t r o n g e r t h a n s t r i c t l y a r e r e q u i r e d t o d e r i v e t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d below. For example, we do n o t need t o assume ( a s w e do i n ( g ) above) t h a t e m i t t e r s a r e c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e i r c o s t s ; i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o assume t h a t t h e y a r e l e s s u n c e r t a i n t h a n t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y i s .

Our o b j e c t i v e , r e c a l l , i s t o compare t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p o l i c y approaches f o r implementing an e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . Under t h e f i r s t approach, which i n v o l v e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s f o r s o u r c e s , t h e a u t h o r i t y s e e k s a s e t of e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s t h a t minimizes e x p e c t e d c o s t s s u b j e c t t o a c h i e v i n g e x p e c t e d ambient c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e q u a l t o t h e ambient s t a n d a r d . We may f o r m u l a t e t h i s problem u s i n g +he n o t a t i o n s e t f o r t h above as

Ns Ns

E

{ I

C i ( @ i , ~ i ) } = minimum E

{I

C i ( e i , u i ) }

i = l e i i = l

Ns

s u b j e c t t o E

{I

d i ( v i l e i } = s i = l

where N S I i s t h e number o f e m i t t e r s . The s o l u t i o n s

Si

a r e t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s t h a t minimize e x p e c t e d c o s t s s u b j e c t t o t h e environmental q u a l i t y c o n s t r a i n t , and

i s t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t under t h i s s e t o f r e g u l a t i o n s .

The second p o l i c y approach we examine i n v o l v e s t h e s e t t i n g of e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s s o a s t o minimize e x p e c t e d c o s t w h i l e a t t a i n - i n g e x p e c t e d ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e q u a l t o t h e e n v i r o n - m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . L e t h i ( p i , u . ) be t h e f u n c t i o n which r e -

1

l a t e s ith e m i t t e r ' s e m i s s i o n s t o t h e c h a r g e l e v i e d on i t s e m i s s i o n s . The random v a r i a b l e ui i s i n c l u d e d reflecting t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y , s i n c e it d o e s n o t know e m i t t e r s ' c o s t

f u n c t i o n s , c a n n o t be c e r t a i n a b o u t emitters r e s p o n s e s t o any g i v e n

(16)

s e t o f e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s . Then u s i n g t h e n o t a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d a b o v e , t h e a u t h o r i t y ' s problem i s t o f i n d t h e

Bi

s u c h t h a t

Ns

-

Ns

( 2 ) c i ( h i ( p i , u . ) 1

1

= minimum E

{ I

C i ( h i ( p i , u i ) I u i )

i = l Pi i = l

Ns

s u b j e c t t o E

{ I

d i ( v i ) h i ( p i .ui)

1

= S i= I.

The t h i r d p o l i c y a p p r o a c h we examine r e q u i r e s e m i t t e r s t o b i d t o p u r c h a s e p e r m i t s from t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y . The a u t h o r i t y i s t o s e l l no more p e r m i t s t o e m i t t e r s t h a n would r e s u l t i n e x p e c t e d a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s j u s t e q u a l t o t h e en- v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . W e w i l l assume t h a t e a c h e m i t t e r b i d s t h e m a x i m u m amount i t i s w i l l i n g t o pay f o r p e r m i t s . Each s u b m i t s i t s b i d s i n t h e form o f a demand s c h e d u l e f o r p e r m i t s .

The m a r g i n a l c o s t s a v i n g s t o , s a y , E m i t t e r 1 from p u r c h a s e o f a n i n c r e m e n t a l p e r m i t i s s i m p l y - C l ( e l , u l ) , t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f i t s c o s t f u n c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o e m i s s i o n s . T h i s t h e n i s t h e amount t h a t i t would be w i l l i n g t o pay f o r t h e l a s t p e r m i t u n i t p u r c h a s e d , and r e p r e s e n t s E m i t t e r 1 ' s demand f u n c t i o n f o r p e r m i t s . Assuming t h a t t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y d o e s n o t w i s h t o c h a r g e a monopo1.y p r i c e f o r p e r m i t s , b u t r a t h e r t o maximize t h e n e t v a l u e of ( i . e . , w i l l i n g n e s s t o pay f o r ) p e r m i t s i s s u e d sub-

j e c t t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d be m e t on a n e x p e c t e d v a l u e b a s i s , i t c a n b e shown t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y ' s problem i s t o choose t h e number of p e r m i t s t o i s s u e t o e a c h e m i t t e r ,

-

e s u c h t h a t i

s u b j e c t t o E d i ( v i ) e i l = s

(17)

which i s p r e c i s e l y e q u i v a l e n t a p a r t from t h e c o n s t a n t terms

Ns Ns

( 4 ) E { L

c ~ ( ; ~ , u ~ ) I

= minimum E { L c i ( e i I u i ) l

i = l e i = l

i

s u b j e c t t o E

{I

di ( v i l e i ) = s

where E

{ I

c ( ; ~ , u . ) } r e p r e s e n t s e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t s a t t h e o p t i m a l

1

p e r m i t a l l o c a t i o n .

The most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g t o n o t e a b o u t e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) i s i t s s i m i l a r i t y t c e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) . There i s , however, one i m p o r t a n t d i f - f e r e n c e . Equation ( 4 ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e problem f a c e d by t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y b e f o r e it h a s r e c e i v e d b i d s c h e d u l e s from emitters.

I n f a c t , t h e problem t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y w i l l s o l v e b e g i n s a f t e r i t h a s r e c e i v e d b i d s c h e d u l e s . T h i s means t h a t , under o u r assumption t h a t e m i t t - e r s a r e p e r f e c t l y c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e i r c o s t s and b a s e t h e i r b i d s upon them, t h e p o l l u t i o n a u t h o r i t y w i l l be p e r f e c t l y c e r t a i n a b o u t c o n t r o l c o s t s a t t h e t i m e it makes i t s p e r m i t a l l o c a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e i t can s e t a n a l l o c a t i o n t h a t e x a c t l y minimizes c o s t s .

3 . 2 A n a l y s i s

Our a n a l y s i s compares t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p o l i c y approaches d e s c r i b e d above i n terms of two c r i t e r i a . The f i r s t c r i t e r i o n i s t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t t o which each approach l e a d s . O t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , w e s h o u l d p r e f e r a p o l i c y approach which l e a d s t o lower e x p e c t e d c o s t t o one which l e a d s t o h i g h e r e x p e c t e d c o s t . The second c r i t e r i o n i s t h e v a r i a n c e of e x p e c t e d ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . W e have c o n s t r a i n e d a l l p o l i c i e s t o r e s u l t i n e x p e c t e d ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e q u a l t o t h e g i v e n en- v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . T h i s b e i n g t h e c a s e , o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , we would p r e f e r p o l i c i e s t h a t r e s u l t i n a r e l a t i v e l y t i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s around t h e environmental q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d .

(18)

The s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r o u r a n a l y s i s of t h e t h r e e . p o l i c y i n - s t r u m e n t s d e s c r i b e d above i s a q u a d r a t i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f e m i t t e r s ' c o s t f u n c t i o n s . T h i s i s done b e c a u s e i t i s f a r e a s i e r t o work w i t h q u a d r a t i c forms t h a n w i t h many more g e n e r a l f o r m s , and b e c a u s e i n many i n s t a n c e s q u a d r a t i c forms p r o v i d e q u i t e good a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . W e w i l l a p p r o x i m a t e t h e c o s t f u n c t i o n s a b o u t t h e p o i n t

ei

by t h e

f u n c t i o n s

where the a i ( u i )

,

and a i ( u . ) a r e random v a r i a b l e s , and where t h e

I II 1

Ci and C . are c o n s t a n t s . The s i g n = means " a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l " .

1

W e s h a l l assume t h a t t h e a i ( u i ) h a v e been s t a n d a r d i z e d s o t h a t E { a i ( u i ) } = 0 f o r a l l i . Note a l s o t h a t s i n c e ui and vi a r e i n -

d e ~ e n d e n t f o r a l l i and j by a s s u m p t i o n , E { a . ( u i ) d i ( v i ) 1 = E {ai ( u i ) } '

1

The b a s i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n g i v e n i n e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) and a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the random e r r o r s imply s e v e r a l o t h e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t h a t w i l l be u s e f u l i n t h e a n a l y s i s w e s h a l l d e v e l o p below. The most i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

( 8 ) E { C i ( e i , u i )

1 c..

1

Note t h a t e q u a t i o n s ( 7 ) and ( 8 ) p r o v i d e us w i t h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of e a c h o f t h e f i x e d c o e f f i c i e n t s a p p e a r i n g i n e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) .

W e now have a l l of t h e b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e q u i r e d t o a n a l y z e and compare t h e t h r e e p o l i c y a p p r o a c h e s de- s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . T h e r e i s a f a i r amount of m a n i p u l a t i o n and s u b s t i t u t i o n i n v o l v e d i n o u r a n a l y s i s , s o p e r h e p s i t w i l l be

(19)

u s e f u l t o o u t l i n e o u r a n a l y t i c a l s t r a t e g y . W e w i l l b e g i n by com- p a r i n g an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y [ a s d e s c r i b e d i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) above] t o an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y [ a s d e s c r i b e d i n e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) a b o v e ) . Our f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s comparison w i l l be t o a e r i v e an e x p l i c i t approximate e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e f u n c t i o n s h i ( p i , u i ) , which g i v e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of e m i s s i o n s l e v e l s ( a s p e r c e i v e d by t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l ~ . u t h o r i t y ) w h i c h w o u l d r e s u l t from any given s e t of changes,

p i

.

The l e v e l s of e m i s s i o n s t h a t a c t u a l l y would a r i s e depend, of c o u r s e , on t h e v a l u e s t a k e n by t h e ui, which a r e known under o u r assumptions o n l y by t h e e m i t t e r s .

The second s t e p of o u r a n a l y s i s i s t o s u b s t i t u t e t h e e x p r e s - s i o n s we d e r i v e f o r h i ( p i f u i ) i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e problem of f i n d i n g a p r i c e t o minimize e x p e c t e d c o s t [ e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) a b o v e ] , and t o f i n d an e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e v a l u e s of t h e p which

i f we have denoted a s

Pi,

which s o l v e t h i s problem.

The t h i r d s t e p i s t o t a k e t h e r e s u l t i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r

sir

s u b s t i t u t e i t i n o u r approximation e x p r e s s i o n f o r c o s t s [ i . e . , e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) above]

,

and e v a l u a t e e x p e c t e d c o s t s . T h i s y i e l d s a n e s t i m a t e of e x p e c t e d c o s t s which we w i l l compare w i t h a s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n f o r e x p e c t e d c o s t s e v a l u a t e d a t S

i ' T h i s comparison w i l l show t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t of t h e e m i s s i o n s c h a r g e p o l i c y i s lower t h a n t h e e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t of t h e e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d p o l i c y .

The f i n a l s t e p i n o u r comparison of e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d s and e m i s s i o n s c h a r g e s i s t o compare t h e v a r i a n c e s of t h e r e s u l t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n s of ambient a i r q u a l i t y . Our a n a l y s i s w i l l show t h a t t h e e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d p o l i c y would r e s u l t i n a s m a l l e r v a r i a n c e i n ambient c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a n would an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y . The s i z e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e v a r i a n c e s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e same

f a c t o r s t h a t g i v e an e m i s s i o n charges p o l i c y a n e x p e c t e d c o s t ad- vantage. That i s , t h e l a r g e r t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t advantage t h a t an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y h a s o v e r an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s about t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d l e v e l .

Our comparison of a t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n s p e r m i t p o l i c y t o e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d s and e m i s s i o n s c h a r g e s f o l l o w s a s i m i l a r se- quence of s t e p s t o t h a t o u t l i n e d above. Our a n a l y s i s w i l l show,

(20)

a s n o t e d a b o v e , t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t o f a t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t s

p o l i c y i s p r e c i s e l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t o f a n e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y , and h e n c e $ s less t h a n t h a t o f a n e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y . W e

w i l l a l s o show t h a t t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from a t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s p o l i c y i s t h e same a s t h a t r e s u l t i n g from a n e m i s s i o n s t a n - d a r d s p a l i c y a n d l e s s t h a n t h a t r e s u l t i n g f r o m a n e m i s s i a n c h a r g e s

p o l i c y .

P r o c e e d i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r a t e g y o u t l i n e d a b o v e , w e b e g i n by d e r i v i n g a n a p p r o x i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e f u n c t i o n s h i ( . ) which r e l a t e s o u r c e s ' r e s u l t i n g e m i s s i o n s l e v e l s t o c h a r g e l e v e l s . W e know t h a t f o r t h e ith e m i t t e r t o m i n i m i z e c o s t s when f a c e d w i t h a n e m i s s i o n c h a r g e pi and s t a t e o f n a t u r e u i , i t w i l l a d j u s t e m i s - s i o n s t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e

T h a t i s , i t w i l l a d j u s t e m i s s i o n s t o t h e p o i n t where i t s i n c r e m e n t a l c o s t s a v i n g from i n c r e a s i n g e m i s s i o n s i s j u s t e q u a l t o t h e incremen- t a l c h a r g e l i a b i l i t y i t i n c u r s by i n c r e a s i n g e m i s s i o n s .

S u b s t i t u t i n g o u r a p p r o x i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e c o s t f u n c t i o n ( e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) ) i n t o e q u a t i o n ( 9 1 , we o b t a i n

which a f t e r r e a r r a n g e m e n t y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e ex- p r e s s i o n f o r t h e f u n c t i o n s hi ( . )

.

1

T h e s e f u n c t i o n s g i v e t h e c o s t m i n i m i z i n g l e v e l s o f e m i s s i o n s t h a t w i l l b e c h o s e n by e a c h e m i t t e r a t any c h a r g e l e v e l . The random

t e r m a . ( u . ) which a p p e a r s i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 0 ) r e f l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t

1 1

t h e agency d o e s n o t know w i t h c e r t a i n t y w h a t l e v e l o f e m i s s i o n s e a c h e m i t t e r w i l l p i c k b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t know e a c h e m i t t e r ' s c o s t s w i t h c e r t a i n t y .

(21)

The n e x t s t e p i s t o s u b s t i t u t e e q u a t i o n ( 1 0 ) i n t o o u r a p p r o x i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n f o r c o s t s ( i . e . e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) )

,

and t o e v a l u a t e a p p r o x i m a t e e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t s . When t h i s i s d o n e , we o b t a i n

where oi 2 = E { a . ( u . ) a i ( u i ) ?

.

1 1

Usinq t h e a p p r o x i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n f o r e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t s g i v e n i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 1 ) above, w e p r o c e e d t o f i n d an e x p r e s s i o n f o r the s e t of p r i c e s whichminimizes t h i s e x p r e s s i o n and a t t a i n s e x p e c t e d a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h e en- v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d . T h i s i s done by m i n i m i z i n g ( 1 1 ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p i , s u b j e c t t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y

c o n s t r a i n t . The f i r s t o r d e r n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h i s a r e

where

ai

= E { d i ( v i )

I .

Note t h a t s i n c e we r e q u i r e e x p e c t e d a m b i e n t p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u n d e r t h e e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d p o l i c y t o b e e q u a l t o the e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d l e v e l , t h e c o n s t r a i n t

1

e q u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n ( 1 2 ) i m p l i e s t h a t

ei

= -Ci. T h i s , i n t u r n , i m p l i e s ( b y s u b s t i t u t i n g back i n t o e q u a t i o n (10)) t h a t a t t h e o p t i m a l

(22)

e m i s s i o n s c h a r g e r a t e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m i s s i o n s r a t e s p e r - c e i v e d by t h e agency i s

and t h a t e x p e c t e d c o s t s under t h e e m i s s i o n s I c h a r g e p o l i c y a s g i v e n by e q u a t i o n ( 1 1 ) e v a l u a t e d a t pi =

-

Ci a r e

3 . 3 R e s u l t s

I n s p e c t i o n of e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 ) r e v e a l s i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t the ex- p e c t e d c o s t s o f t h e e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y i s l e s s t h a n t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t t h a t would r e s u l t from t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y . T h i s can b e s e e n by n o t i n g t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t o f t h e e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y i s e q u a l t o t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t o f t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y l e s s a term which depends upon t h e v a r i a n c e s o f t h e i n t e r - c e p t s o f t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t f u n c t i o n s . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t of an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y and t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t o f a n e m i s s i o n ~ h a r g e s p o l i c y i s

The e x p e c t e d c o s t a d v a n t a g e of t h e o p t i m a l c h a r g e p o l i c y comes a t a p r i c e , however. The v a r i a n c e of ambient p o l l u t i o n concen- t r a t i o n under t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y i s s i m p l y

\&

where di i s t h e v a r i a n c e of d i ( v i ) . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e v a r i a n c e of ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s under t h e e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y c a n be shown ( b y s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e

ei

c o n t a i n e d

(23)

i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 3 ) i n t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t e q u a t i o n and e v a l u a t i n g t h e v a r i a n c e of t h e r e s u l t i n g e x p r e s s i o n ) t o be

T h i s i s c l e a r l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e v a r i a n c e of ambient p o l l u t i o n con- c e n t r a t i o n s under e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e m i t t e r s ' c o s t s .

Our comparison o f e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s t o e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s t h u s l e a d s u s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y l e a d s t o lower e x p e c t e d c o s t , and l e s s c e r t a i n t y a b o u t r e s u l t i n g ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h a n d o e s , a n e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y . The more u n c e r t a i n a r e e m i t t e r s

'

c o s t f u n c t i o n s , t h e l a r g e r t h e c o s t a d v a n t a g e of an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y r e l a t i v e t o an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y , and t h e g r e a t e r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y c e r t a i n t y a d v a n t a g e of an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y r e l a t i v e t o an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y . Any c h o i c e between t h e s e p o l i c i e s t h u s r e s t s

upon weighing t h e b e n e f i t s o f c o s t s a v i n g s a g a i n s t t h e b e n e f i t s o f g r e a t e r c e r t a i n t y c o n c e r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l q a a l i t y . T h i s t r a d e - o f f a n a l y s i s would have t o be made i n o r d e r t o d e c i d e which o f t h e two p o l i c i e s - - e m i s s i o n . s t a n d a r d s o r e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s - - i s b e t t e r .

I t i s a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e m a t t e r t o e x t e n d t h e a n a l y s i s p r e - s e n t e d above t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e e x p e c t e d c o s t and v a r i a n c e of ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which would r e s u l t from a t r a n s f e r - a b l e e m i s s i o n ; p e r m i t s p o l i c y . Under t h i s t y p e of p o l i c y , g i v e n o u r assumptions t h a t e m i t t e r s always know e x a c t l y t h e i r c o s t f u n c t i o n s and r e v e a l them i n b i d d i n g f o r p e r m i t s , t h e agency a l l o c a t e s an amount of p e r m i t s t o e a c h e m i t t e r ,

-

ei, such t h a t *

*

Equation ( 1 8 ) f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y from t h e f i r s t o r d e r n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e problem s t a t e d i n e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) above.

(24)

S e t t i n g o u r a p p r o x i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n f o r i n c r e m e n t a l c o s t s i n equa- t i o n ( 6 ) a b o v e e q u a l t o t h e r i g h t - h a n d side o f e q u a t i o n ( 1 8 ) above a n d s o l v i n g f o r

-

e i

'

w e o b t a i n

N o t e t h e s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n e q u a t i o n s ( 1 9 ) a n d ( 1 0 ) . I n - d e e d , t h e y a r e p r e c i s e l y t h e same e q u a t i o n , and a f u l l a n a l y s i s o f e q u a t i o n s ( 1 8 ) a n d ( 1 9 ) p a r a l l e l i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 ) a b o v e l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t - - e x a n t e , t h e o p t i m a l a l l o c a t i o n

-

ei o f p e r m i t s u n d e r t h e o p t i m a l m a r k e t a b l e p e r m i t s y s t e m i s

I f f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y , by s u b s t i t u t i o n b a c k i n t o e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) a n d t a k i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h a t t h e t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o r p e r n i t s p o l i c y e n j o y s t h e same e x ~ e c t e d c o s t a d v a n t a g e t h a t i s e n j o y e d by t h e e m i s - s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y . T h a t i s , e x p e c t e d c o s t u n d e r t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t s i s l e s s t h a n e x p e c t e d c o s t u n d e r e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s b y t h e

amount g i v e n i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 5 ) a b o v e .

I n c o m p u t i n g t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a m b i e n t p o l l u - t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m a t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t p o l i c y w e p r o c e e d a s w e d i d a b o v e f o r t h e e m i s s i o n s c h a r g e p o l i c y , w i t h o n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n . Under t h e t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t p o l i c y , t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y l e a r n s t h e a . ( u . ) from

1 1

e m i t t e r s t h r o u g h t h e b i d s s u b m i t t e d p r i o r t o making i t s d e c i s i 0 . n ~ . The a i ( u i ) a r e t h u s n o t random v a r i a b l e s a t t h e t i m e t h e d e c i s i o n i s made, a n d t h e v a r i a n c e o f a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s g i v e n a p - p r o x i m a t e l y b y e q u a t i o n ( 1 6 ) - - t h e e q u a t i o n w h i c h g i v e s t h e v a r i - a n c e o f a m b i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u n d e r t h e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y .

T h i s i s a most i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t . I f w e a c c e p t t h e a s s u m p t i o n s upon which i t r e s t s , w e c o n c l u d e t h a t b o t h a t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s and a n e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y h a v e c o s t a d v a n t a g e s o v e r a n

(25)

e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y . W e a l s o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e v a r i a n c e of ambient p o l l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s under a t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t s p o l i c y i s e q u a l t o t h a t under a n e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y . Based o n o u r two c r i t e r i a , e x p e c t e d c o s t and t h e p r e c i s i o n w i t h which a p o l i c y meets e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d l e v e l s , o u r a n a l y - s i s l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a t r a n s f e r a b l e p e r m i t s p o l i c y i s t h e b e s t p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t t o u s e i n o r d e r t o implement a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d .

4 . CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d above a d m i t t e d l y depend upon the as- sumption t h a t c o n t r o l c o s t f u n c t i o n s may be approximated s a t i s - f a c t o r i l y by a q u a d r a t i c o f t h e form o f e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) . Malcomson

( 1 9 7 8 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y v a l i d , and t h a t when i t i s n o t , c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e magnitudes of e x p e c t e d c o s t s under d i f f e r e n t a l l o c a t i o n s p o l i c i e s may be a f f e c t e d .

T h i s c r i t i c i s m , w h i l e i t s i m p o r t a n c e i s n o t t o be minimized, i s p e r h a p s l e s s s e r i o u s i n t h e c o n t e x t w e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g h e r e . Under t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t emitters know and r e v e a l t h e i r a c t u a l c o s t s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f o f f e r i n g t o buy and s e l l e m i s s i o n s p e r - m i t s , we may be a s s u r e d t h a t whatever t h e n a t u r e o f randomness i n e m i t t e r s ' c o s t f u n c t i o n s , c o s t s of meeting ( i n e x p e c t a t i o n )

a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d w i l l be minimized. The c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a t r a n s f e r a b l e e m i s s i o n p e r m i t s p o l i c y would l e a d t o t h e

l o w e s t e x p e c t e d c o s t o f t h e p o l i c i e s c o n s i d e r e d t h u s a p p e a r s t o h o l d , Malcomson's c a u t i o n s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g .

Our r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e e x p e c t e d a o s t s o f an emis- s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y and an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y a r e n o t r o b u s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o a l t e r n a t i v e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of t h e way i n which ran- dom e r r o r s e n t e r c o s t f u n c t i o n s . Examples can b e c o n s t r u c t e d i n which an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y would r e s u l t i n a lower e x p e c t e d c o s t t h a n would an e m i s s i o n c h a r g e s p o l i c y . While one may q u i b b l e a b o u t t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s of f o r m u l a t i o n s t h a t l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u - s i o n t h a t an e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s p o l i c y would r e s u l t i n l o w e r ex- p e c t e d c o n t r o l c o s t s , t h e l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h a r e s u l t

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