Interpretations of Everyman

INTERPRETATIONS OF E V E R Y M A N

Bruegel's engraving Everyman is universally regarded as an especially complex allegory. A s the drawing for it is signed and dated "[BJrueghel 1558," that date serves as a terminus post quern for the undated engraving.

T h e composition takes its name from its chief figure, identified by the word

entire composition is built up around this Everyman, w h o stands bent over in the very center, staring at an open lantern with a burning candle inside it and apparently engaged in some sort o f search.

T h e left half o f the composition is presented against the backdrop of a wall. In a shadowy niche in that wall, in the center o f the picture, we see an unlighted candle. T o the left o f the niche hangs the portrait of a man identified by his clothing as a fool. T h e inscription under the portrait reads:

NIEMA[N]T. EN. KENT. HEfMJ. SELVEfN]

(Nobody

knows himself). T h e right half of the picture provides a glimpse of an army camp in its background: tents, a small group o f officers, standard-bearers, and a host of mercenar­

ies whose upright lances block out the horizon. W e also see a church and a leafless tree standing forlorn against the sky.

In this part o f the landscape there are two more Everymen, recognizable as such from their poses and lanterns. T h e y too are bent forward, staring intently at their lanterns as they go about their own searches.

A r t historians have taken the print to be an allegory of selfishness, pointing to the full purse o f the Everyman in the foreground as an indication that he is as miserly as he is greedy.

T h e inscription beneath the picture seems to support such a view, declaring "No one does not seek his own advantage everywhere, no one does not seek himself in all that he does, no one does not look everywhere for 168

Originalveröffentlichung in: Orenstein, Nadine M. (Hrsg.): Pieter Bruegel the Elder : drawings and prints, New Haven, Conn. 2001, S. 168-170

p r i v a t e gain. T h i s o n e pulls, that o n e pulls, all have t h e s a m e l o v e o f p o s s e s s i o n . " Y e t t h e attribute o f t h e l i g h t e d lantern i m m e d i a t e l y b r i n g s to m i n d D i o g e n e s a n d his s e a r c h i n g w i t h a l a n t e r n i n b r o a d d a y l i g h t for an h o n e s t m a n . S u p­

p o r t i n g this i d e a is the s i m i l a r i m a g e r y o f e m b l e m 31 i n the Morosophie o f G u i l l a u m e d e L a Perriere f r o m 1553, w h i c h s h o w s t h e a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r i n his search as e v i d e n c e o f h i s sagacity.3 Bruegel's p o r t r a y a l o f a n o t h e r E v e r y m a n w h o h a s c r a w l e d i n t o a barrel at the l o w e r left edge o f the picture m a y also b e a l i n k t o D i o g e n e s , w h o is said t o have b e e n so frugal t h a t h e lived i n a tub. I n t h e c o n t e x t o f this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , it w o u l d a l m o s t seem t h a t w e are t o c o n s i d e r t h e Elck in a positive way, a s s u m i n g that t h e E v e r y m a n is as m o d e s t in his n e e d s as D i o g e n e s . F r a n z s e p p W i i r t e n b e r g e r has referred us t o a n o t h e r i c o n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n o f i m p o r ­ tance to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Everyman: t h e n u m e r o u s N o b o d y d e p i c t i o n s .4 H e offers a G e o r g P e n c z w o o d c u t f r o m 1535, Nobody (DerNiemand), as a specific precedent.

B u t Pencz's N o b o d y is s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i n g s that are b r o ­ k e n or h a v e fallen apart, w h e r e a s t h e objects i n Bruegel's i m a g e are all intact.

T h e central figure i n Bruegel's c o m p o s i t i o n p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t clue t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e scene, for E v e r y ­ m a n is clearly g a z i n g at his l i g h t e d l a n t e r n in d a y l i g h t . A p p a r e n t l y the l a n t e r n is n o t m e r e l y an aid i n his search b u t t h e actual o b j e c t o f it. H i s spectacles are a n o t h e r k e y detail; h e d o u b t l e s s wears t h e m i n order t o see his l i g h t clearly. B u t t h e y m u s t have a d d i t i o n a l significance, for glasses c a n h a v e a negative m e a n i n g , s u p p o s e d l y s y m b o l i z ­ i n g d e l u s i o n , i g n o r a n c e , or s e l f - d e c e p t i o n , as the literature o n Bruegel's e n g r a v i n g r e m i n d s us. I n this c o n n e c t i o n w e t h i n k o f t h e w e l l - k n o w n w o o d c u t f o r m e r l y attributed t o E r h a r d S c h o e n , The OwlHates Light f r o m 1540, a scene in s o m e respects c o m p a r a b l e t o Bruegel's allegory. T h e r e an o w l , c o n s p i c u o u s l y b r a n d i s h i n g a pair o f spectacles, is perched n e x t t o a b u r n i n g c a n d l e , a n d so that t h e v i e w e r c a n see that the candle is b u r n i n g i n b r o a d daylight, S c h o e n has i n c l u d e d a s u n i n t h e u p p e r left corner. T h e o w l also refers t o the sun in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n : Was hilfft mich sun(n) / licht oderprill, weyl ich doch selbs nicht sehen will ( W h a t h e l p are s u n l i g h t or glasses i f I don't c h o o s e t o see).3 A related i m a g e also appears as t h e illustration for chapter 28 of Sebastian B r a n t ' s Narrenschiff ( S h i p o f F o o l s ) f r o m 1494. T i t l e d Vom

Wider-Gott-Reden ( O n B l a s p h e m y ) , this w o o d c u t portrays a f o o l w h o has lit a fire in b r o a d d a y l i g h t , a d a y t i m e fire that is m e a n t t o s h o w t h e o b d u r a c y o f t h e m a n attached to the t h i n g s o f this w o r l d a n d h o w incapable h e is o f b e i n g saved.

F u r t h e r clues t o Bruegel's m e a n i n g e m e r g e f r o m the j u m ­ ble o f objects at t h e b o t t o m o f his c o m p o s i t i o n representing

a w i d e variety o f o c c u p a t i o n s , for t h e m o r e w e s t u d y it, t h e m o r e suggestive it b e c o m e s . O n t h e left w e see an ax, a trowel, a n d a scale, a n d at t h e feet o f t h e central E v e r y m a n a shoemaker's l a s t — a l l e v o k i n g specific trades. T h e r e are also barrels, baskets, a n d tied sacks. I n t h e r i g h t h a l f o f the picture, i n a d d i t i o n to still m o r e objects that m a y refer to t r a d e s — a p o t , shears a n d c l o t h , a b o o k , a n d m o r e tied boxes a n d b u n d l e s — a r e t h i n g s u s e d in various g a m e s : a c h e c k e r b o a r d , dice, a n d p l a y i n g cards. A n d at t h e v e r y b o t t o m e d g e o f t h e i m a g e lie a m i r r o r a n d a roll o f paper.

M a r k i n g s o n t h e sacks a n d boxes i d e n t i f y t h e t r a d i n g c o m ­ p a n i e s to w h i c h t h e wares b e l o n g . Interestingly, s o m e o f the b u n d l e s have several different m a r k i n g s , w h i c h c o u l d m e a n that m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n or c o m p a n y lays c l a i m to t h e m . B r u e g e l has i n c l u d e d an inside j o k e in all o f the d i s ­ order: o n o n e o f the visibly e m p t y boxes in the left h a l f o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n is the f i r m m a r k o f H i e r o n y m u s C o c k , the p u b l i s h e r o f his prints.6

A l l t h e figures i n B r u e g e l ' s e n g r a v i n g are so d e e p l y a b s o r b e d i n their m a t e r i a l i s t i c s e a r c h i n g , so s h o r t s i g h t e d i n the intellectual sense, that eyeglasses w o u l d b e o f n o use t o t h e m . W h a t can h a p p e n w h e n o n e E v e r y m a n e n ­ counters a n o t h e r is e v i d e n t f r o m t h e tussle t w o o f t h e m are e n g a g e d i n over a l e n g t h o f c l o t h . E a c h is so d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e o t h e r shall n o t h a v e t h e c l o t h t h a t h e tugs o n it w i t h all his strength. I f either o f t h e m were t o give w a y t h e y w o u l d b o t h fall o n their b e h i n d s .

T h a t Bruegel's E v e r y m e n rule t h e w o r l d , even o w n it, is i n d i c a t e d b y the presence of t h e o r b b e t w e e n the central figure's legs. A t first glance w e register this s y m b o l o f t h e w o r l d as j u s t a n o t h e r tied sack, for it is easily o v e r l o o k e d because o f the w a y B r u e g e l has p o s i t i o n e d it. O n c e w e spot t h e cross, p r o j e c t i n g o u t w a r d b e h i n d the figure's right leg, w e see that it c o r r e s p o n d s t o the traders' m a r k s ; it is as i f t h e w o r l d itself h a d b e c o m e a m e r e c o m m o d i t y .

H e r e it is i m p o r t a n t t o e m p h a s i z e h o w m u c h Bruegel's w a y o f b u i l d i n g u p m e a n i n g in a c o m p o s i t i o n differs f r o m traditional i c o n o g r a p h i c practice, h o w m u c h h e relies o n t h e viewer's ability t o m a k e t h e necessary c o n n e c t i o n s . I n t h e case o f Everyman w e m u s t r e c o g n i z e the biblical i m a g e s h e alludes to. S e e i n g the b u s h e l measure i n f r o n t o f E v e r y ­ man's left f o o t a n d n o t i n g t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e l i g h t e d c a n d l e a n d the u n l i t o n e i n t h e w a l l n i c h e , w e c a n o n l y recall t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a d m o n i t i o n that w e n o t h i d e our l i g h t b e n e a t h a b u s h e l b a s k e t ( L u k e 11:33-35): " N o m a n , w h e n h e h a t h l i g h t e d a c a n d l e , p u t t e t h it i n a secret place, n e i t h e r u n d e r a b u s h e l , b u t o n a c a n d l e s t i c k , that t h e y w h i c h c o m e i n m a y see t h e light. T h e l i g h t o f t h e b o d y is t h e eye: therefore w h e n t h i n e eye is single, t h y w h o l e

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body also is full of light; but when thine eye is evil, thy body also is full of darkness."

Elck has misunderstood this image by taking it literally.

He carries his lantern about with him, mistaking external light for the light within. He fails to comprehend that light is only a metaphor for Christian virtue. We, Bruegel's view­

ers, in turn, are required to fully appreciate the image in order to recognize how it has been misunderstood, that this is an ironic perversion of the biblical metaphor for the search for God. In the Psalms, especially, we read of men searching for God with all their hearts. In the Gospel of Mark (1:37), Christ's disciples find him and tell him: "All men seek for thee," or "Every man is looking for you."

Linked to the problem of man's search for God is the theo­

logical issue of grace, for just as we cannot raise ourselves up into heaven alone, we cannot search for God and find him if he does not choose to be found.

Finding God is always tantamount to being found by God.

Bruegel's Everyman commits the error of trusting that he can find

God on his own.

r. M i i n z 1961, n o . 138.

2. S e e L e b e e r ' s b r i e f r e v i e w o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u p t o 1969 i n B r u s s e l s 1969, p p . 7 7 - 8 1 .

3. F o r t h e D i o g e n e s i c o n o g r a p h y i n g e n e r a l a n d L a Perriere's Morosophie i n p a r­

ticular, see S c h m i t t 1993, p. 72.

4. W i i r t e n b e r g e r 1957, p . 8 0 . F o r t h e m o s t r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h e N o b o d y i c o n o g r a ­ p h y , see S c h u s t e r 1981, p p . 28—43.

5. H o l l s t e i n 1 9 5 4 - , v o l . 48, n o . 2 0 9 . T h e e x p l a n a t o r y text b y H a n s S a c h s e m p h a s i z e s m e n ' s s t u b b o r n n e s s . H e r e w e r e a d t h a t t h e g o s p e l h a s b e c o m e a s i g n o f l a c k o f b e l i e f r a t h e r t h a n of f a i t h : " D o c h w e n i g B e i s r u n g k u m p t d a r - v o n , D e r h a l b d a s E v a n g e l i o n w i r d t v o r d e m e n d t / w i e c h r i s t u s m e l d t G e p r e d i g t d u r c h d i e g a n t z e n w e l t N u r z u [ m ] z e u g n u s d a s w i r n i c h t g l a u b e t h a b e n / s o n d e r b l i n d u n d b e t a u b e t B l e y b e n / i n s c h w e r e r s i i n d e n s c h l a f f "

( Y e t little g o o d c o m e s o f it. B e f o r e t h e e n d , t h e g o s p e l a n d C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s w i l l b e p r e a c h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , i f o n l y t o s h o w t h a t w e h a v e n o t b e l i e v e d b u t r e m a i n b h n d a n d d e a f i n t h e d e e p sleep o f o u r s i n s ) . T h i s p e s ­ s i m i s t i c v i e w i s b a s e d o n J o h n 3:19, " l i g h t is c o m e i n t o t h e w o r l d , a n d m e n l o v e d d a r k n e s s r a t h e r t h a n l i g h t . "

6. S e e t h e e n g r a v i n g b y P i e t e r v a n der H e y d e n o f C o c k ' s t h r e e d i f f e r e n t d e v i c e s , r e p r o d u c e d i n R o t t e r d a m 1988, p. 82, ill. p p . 67—68. O n t h e s u b j e c t o f C o c k ' s firm m a r k , see R i g g s 1979, p p . 1 6 6 - 6 7 .

7. J o h n 6 : 4 4 , a p a s s a g e t h a t E r a s m u s discusses i n h i s d e b a t e w i t h L u t h e r o v e r free w i l l . S e e E r a s m u s (1524) 1967, p. 141.

8. S e e K r o t k e 1989, p p . 517—32.

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