Genetic Engineering and the Energy System: How to Make Ends Meet

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GENETIC ENGINEERING A13D THE ENERGY SYSTEM:

HOW TO MAKE ENDS MEET

C. M a r c h e t t i

D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8

Research Memoranda are interim reports on research being conducted by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and as such receive only limited scientific review. Views or opinions contained herein do not necessarily represent those of the Institute or of the National Member Organizations supporting the Institute.

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Copyright @ 1978 IIASA

All ' hts reserved. No part of this publication may be repro

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uced or transmitted in ~y form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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PREFACE

The Energy Systems Program a t IIASA d e v o t e s i t s e l f n o t o n l y t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f new e n e r g y s y s t e m s work b u t a l s o t o t h e syn- t h e s i s o f t e c h n i c a l f i x e s t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s t h e a n a l y s i s b r i n g s i n t o e v i d e n c e .

The q u e s t i o n o f t h e v e r y h i g h c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t i n s o l a r s y s t e m s i s d e a l t w i t h , and of a p o s s i b l e f i x t o r e d u c e them t o a l e v e l b e a r a b l e f o r d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s .

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SUMMARY

World f o r e s t s p r o d u c e a n amount o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 0 0 TW. Man u s e s a b o u t 8 TW, m o s t l y i n t h e f o r m o f f o s s i l f u e l s . Many p r o p o s a l s h a v e b e e n made t o l i n k t h e two s y s t e m s i n o r d e r t o a l l e v i a t e t h e w o r l d ' s d e p e n d e n c e o n f o s s i l f u e l s

.

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e two s y s t e m s s u g g e s t s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a n i n t e r f a c e between them s h o u l d h a v e .

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e mechanisms o f p l a n t p a r a s i t i s m and s y m b i o s i s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f R h i z o b i a , shows t h a t t h e i n t e r f a c e c o u l d b e c r e a t e d by g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g .

I n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n p r o p o s e d t h e c o s t o f h i g h - q u a l i t y f u e l s f r o m s o l a r e n e r g y would b e l e s s by o n e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e t h a n t h a t o f c u r r e n t schemes.

The g r e a t s o p h i s t i c a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o d e v e l o p t h e b i o l o g i c a l components o f t h e s y s t e m and t h e g r e a t s i m p l i c i t y i n a p p l y i n g i t i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t s o l a r e n e r g y , a r e a p e r f e c t example o f

t e c h n o Z o g i c a Z t r a n s f e r s u i t e d f o r t h e r e c i p i e n t , t h a t i s , d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s .

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Genetic Engineering and the Energy System:

How to Make Ends Meet

Introduction

In this paper, an attempt is made to devise a conceptual framework, a "system synthesis", for the possibility of a really soft solar energy option, making the best use of the theory of energy systems, plant ecology and physiology, and genetic engineering. Although the results of the synthesis may appear a little chimeric, the components come from actual lines of research in the relevant disciplines, as is shown in the literature quoted. The aim of the paper, however, is not to provide a finished product but to point to possible realizations of

the

soft technology concept which mean what they say, even under strict real world constraints.

The Clumsy Solar

Energy systems tend to become more and more capital intensive, and solar energy is well into that trend. Projected costs of $5000 per mean kW(e) for large stations [I], and actual costs of $40,000 per peak kW for one-kW solar pumping stations in- stalled in the Sahel area [2] make these installations at best showpieces of the very rich, and certainly run contrary to the argument that solar energy is free.

Just for comparison, an internal combustion engine may cost

$10 to $20 per kW and over a period of 20 years consume a weight of fuel (5 tons) that is comparable to the weight of the hardware of the solar pumps in the Sahel but which costs only $1000.

Even for heat at low temperature, the figures, although much

lower, are not much more encouraging. The mere bulk of materials necessary to deploy the collection system and to provide some kind of storage makes a cheap solution appear physically im- possible

[ I

1

.

Thus, contrary to what is often claimed in the current literature, solar energy does not seem a good bet for the developing countries--chronically and intrinsically short of capital--at least with current concepts. For these countries, buying oil and gas, which require relatively little investment at the point of use, appears the only possible solution; but even this will place too heavy a burden on their balance of payment. The only way to avoid the impasse is to have a really soft technology available, defined as a means of achieving an end through possibly very sophisticated knowledge but with little hardware and perhaps little know-how at the point of use.

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A s c r e a t i n g income i s a much h a r d e r t a s k t h a n c r e a t i n g j o b s , a s o f t t e c h n o l o g y s h o u l d a l s o need l i t t l e manpower f o r mainte- nance and o p e r a t i o n . " J o b s " w i l l r a p i d l y f i n d t h e i r way t o income once it i s g e n e r a t e d .

The Clumsv F o r e s t

The c e n t r a l problem of s o l a r e n e r g y u s e b e i n g t h a t of un- w i e l d y hardware, it i s an i d e a of s t r i k i n g b e a u t y t o u s e a

l i v i n g t h i n g where t h e hardware i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y produced and m a i n t a i n e d by t r a n s c o d i n g o f g e n e t i c messages where t h e raw m a t e r i a l s a r e c o l l e c t e d m a i n l y from t h e atmosphere. I n f a c t , t h e i d e a o f u s i n g t h e w o r l d f o r e s t s a s s o l a r e n e r g y c o l l e c t o r s even q u a l i t a t i v e l y i s n o t an a l i e n one. While t h e w o r l d ' s energy consumption i s a b o u t 8 TW, o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 b i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l e q u i v a l e n t p e r y e a r , world f o r e s t s have a metabolism i n t h e r a n g e of 1 0 0 TW, and a b o u t h a l f i s j u s t d i s c a r d e d i n t h e form of f a l l i n g b r a n c h e s , l e a v e s , and dead t r e e s [ 3 ] .

S o l a r e n e r g y e n t h u s i a s t s o f t e n t e n d t o s t r e s s t h a t s o l a r e n e r g y i s f r e e . A l l n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a r e i n f a c t f r e e , and t h e d e c a y i n g wood and o t h e r o r g a n i c m a t t e r a r e no e x c e p t i o n . What d o e s c o s t money i s t o m o b i l i z e t h e r e s o L r c e and make t h e p r o d u c t s

f l o w t o t h e consumer i n t h e p r o p e r form and amount, and t h a t i s where t h e v a r i o u s p r o p o s a l s f o r u s i n g p l a n t s a s s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s , p u b l i c i z e d under t h e t r a d e names o f biomass o r e n e r g y p l a n t a t i o n , a r e bogged down.

F o r e s t s a c t u a l l y do a n e a t job i n c o l l e c t i n g s o l a r e n e r g y and s t o r i n g it i n a f a i r l y s t a S l e c h e m i c a l form. The c o l l e c t e d e n e r g y , hcwever, i s s p a t i a i i y d i l u t e d and I n a form awkward t o h a n d l e . H a r v e s t i n g it r e q u i r e s a l o t of manpower and q u i t e s o p h i s t i c a t e d machinery [ 4 ] . But c o l l e c t i n g i s o n l y t h e b e g i n - n i n g . Wood m a t e r i a l and biomass a r e n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t r a n s p o r - t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h t h o s e d e v e l o p e d f o r o i l and g a s . Nor a r e t h e y s u i t a b l e f o r p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s of f i n a l u t i l i z a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , an i n t e r m e d i a t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , e . g . t o n a t u r a l g a s , i s f i n a l l y i n t r o d u c e d . A s p e o p l e i n t h e b u s i n e s s o f c o a l g a s i f i c a t i o n know w e l l , t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s i t a t e s s o much c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t and c a u s e s s u c h l a r g e e n e r g y l o s s e s t h a t o i l and g a s f i n a l l y a p p e a r u n e x p e c t e d l y cheap. Tne hope t h a t o i l and g a s w i l l v e r y r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e i n p r i c e , due t o t h e i r e x h a u s t i o n , a p p e a r s t o have l i t t l e chance of m a t e r i a l i z i n g

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.

F o r e s t s , we have s e e n , shed i n c h e m i c a l form a s much a s f i v e t i m e s t h e e n e r g y w e consume. The a c c e s s t o t h i s t a n t a l i z i n g s o u r c e depends on t h e i n v e n t i o n of a p r o p e r i n t e r f a c e . P e r h a p s , i n t h i s l i t t l e s t u d i e d d i r e c t i o n , w e may f i n d t h e s h o r t c u t t o s o l a r e n e r g y u t i l i z a t i o n . I w i l l open t h e r a c e .

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The C o m ~ e t e n t I n t e r f a c e

A t t h i s p o i n t t h e problem i s f a i r l y f o c u s e d . One s h o u l d add t h a t , i n t h e w o r l d e n e r g y s y s t e m , g a s i s p r o b a b l y g o i n g t o b e t h e dominant e n e r g y c a r r i e r f o r t h e n e x t 50 y e a r s [ 5 ] , and c o n s e q u e n t l y a t r u n k g a s p i p e l i n e i s t h e most l i k e l y c o n f i g u r a - t i o n s u c h a n i n t e r f a c e h a s t o match on t h e consumer s i d e . The g a s c a n b e methane o r hydrogen which, a s numerous s t u d i e s have shown, are l a r g e l y i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e .

The s u g g e s t i o n I w i l l make p i v o t s on two o b s e r v a t i o n s :

-

T r e e s a r e machines w i t h a m e t a b o l i c power ( a v e r a g e ) of t h e o r d e r o f one kW. The a v e r a g e power p e r house i n a h o u s i n g development a r e a c o n n e c t e d t o t h e g a s g r i d i s a b o u t one kW.

So I t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c o s t of a n e t o f p i p e l i n e s c o l l e c t i n g g a s from each t r e e c o u l d b e e a s i l y e s t i m a t e d from t h e c o s t o f a n e t o f p i p e l i n e s d i s t r i b u t i n g g a s t o h o u s e s . I d i d i n q u i r e w i t h a g a s company, and t h e c o s t comes o u t t o be i n t h e r a n g e o f $100 t o $200 p e r kW a v e r a g e , d i s t r i b u t e d

( o r c o i l e c t e d ) , i f t h e p i p e s a r e l a i d t e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . D r i p i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s f o r o r c h a r d s , w i t h i n d i v i d u a l n i p p l e s f o r t h e t r e e s , a r e i n t h e same c o s t r a n g e o r a b o u t $1000/hs, i n c l u d i n w e l l s and pumps. With a c o l l e c t e d e n e r g y d e n s i t y of 1 W/mg t h i s makes i n f a c t $100/kW.

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A s t h e d e c o d i n g o f a DNA message produced s u c h a m a g n i f i c e n t s t r u c t u r e a s a p l a n t , why n o t add a few b y t e s t o t h e message and i n s t r u c t t h e p l a n t t o p r o d u c e a l i t t l e a c c e s s o r y m a t c h i n g t h e c o l l e c t i n g g r i d ?

T h i s may a p p e a r a s a t a l l o r d e r , b u t i n n a t u r e numerous b r i l l i a n t , i f sometimes e x t r a v a g a n t , s e t s of s o l u t i o n s have a l - r e a d y been found t o t h i s k i n d of problem and o p e r a t e r i g h t b e f o r e o u r e y e s . Many i n s e c t s a r e c a p a b l e of i n d u c i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b o d i e s i n p l a n t s - - t h e g a l l s - - t h a t may be r e l a t e d t o t u m o r s b u t a r e p r o f o u n d l y d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t t h e y grow a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e c i s e f u n c t i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , a s d o e s any o t h e r o r g a n o r a p l a n t .

These g a l l s a r e e n g i n e e r e d t o p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n and food f o r t h e l a r v a e of t h e i n s e c t , and a r e p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d t o t h e i r n e e d s and timed t o t h e i r s t a t e of development [6].

Not o n l y i n s e c t s b u t a l s o b a c t e r i a and f u n g i have found t h e i r way t o i n d u c e g a l l f o r m a t i o n . They number i n t e n s of t h o u s a n d s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s . Oaks h o s t a few hundred t y p e s of g a l l s .

T h e i r s t r u c t u r a l and f u n c t i o n a l v a r i e t y i s a s t o n i s h i n g : t h e y r a n g e i n s i z e from a p i n h e a d t o a rugby b a l l , and a p p e a r a s spongy n e s t s o r complex s t r u c t u r e s w i t h p r e c i s e l y machined d o o r s o p e n i n g a t t h e p r o p e r t i m e f o r t h e m a t u r e i n s e c t t o come o u t ( F i g u r e 1 ) .

How i n f o r m a t i o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d between p a r a s i t e o r symbiont and h o s t f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f g a l l s and n o d u l e s h a s been t h e s u b j e c t of e x t e n s i v e s p e c u l a t i o n f o r many y e a r s , b u t t h e o b v i o u s s u s p i c i o n - - t h a t a t r a n s f e r o f DNA i s a t work--has been p r o v e n , a t

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CECIDOSIS EREMITA W I T H

"GENETICALLY COT" BORE

F i g u r e 1 . The C e c i d o s i s e r e m i t a shows some o f t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f a g a l l i n d u c e d by a n i n s e c t . The e s c a p e h o l e i s n o t d r i l l e d by t h e i n s e c t , a s o f t f l y , b u t i s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h g e n e t i c c o n t r o l c a u s i n g a c y l i n d r i c a l l a y e r o f c e l l s t o d r y [6].

l e a s t i n some c a s e s , o n l y r e c e n t l y [ 7 ] . W i t h o u t DNA o r F d A , however, t h e e x t r e m e s t r u c t u r a l and f u n c t i o n a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f t h e g a l l s would b e u n t h i n k a b l e .

One o f t h e c a s e s c l a r i f i e d i s t h a t o f t h e A g r o b a c t e r tume- f a c i e n s , a b a c t e r i u m c a p a b l e of i n d u c i n g t u m o r - l i k e g a l l s i n t h e crown o f m o s t b r o a d l e a v e d t r e e s ( F i g u r e 4 ) . I n t h i s c a s e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h a p l a s m i d , a s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t a n d s e l f - c o n t r o l l e d DNA r i n g , t h e b a c t e r i u m i n j e c t s i n t o t h e p l a n t c e l l [ 7 1 . These p l a s m i d s a r e o f t e n swapped between b a c t e - r i a , c a r r y i n g r e l e v a n t news f o r s u r v i v a l i n t h e g a d g e t r y - - e . g . t h e c o d e f o r a n enzyme t o m e t a b o l i z e p e n i c i l l i n e . I n t h e l a s t few y e a r s g e n e t i c i s t s h a v e l e a r n e d t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e p l a s m i d s w i t h g r e a t f a c i l i t y ; t h e y c a n n o t o n l y t r a n s f e r p l a s m i d s , b u t m o d i f y them o p e n i n g t h e DNA r i n g and i n s e r t i n g new s t r i n g s o f DNA ( F i g u r e 2 ) . J u s t a s a n e x e r c i s e , t h e n . i . f . ( n i t r o g e n f i x a - t i o n s g e n e s ) - - i . e . t h e DNA s e q u e n c e c o d i n g f o r t h e m a c h i n e r y t o f i x n i t r o g e n - - h a s b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d from KZebsieZZa pneumoniae t o E s c h e r i c h i a c o Z i , a n d i t s a c t i v i t y p r e s e r v e d [8]. The same o p e r a t i o n h a s been d o n e between K. pneumoniae and A . t u m e f a c i e n s w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e n . i . f . t o a p l a n t e n a b l i n g t h e p l a n t i t s e l f t o f i x n i t r o g e n [9].

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G E N E T I C G R A F T I N G I N PLASMID

F i g u r e 2 . A s Fnzormation cen be t r a n s f e r r e d t o p l a n t c e l l s t h r o u g h a p i a s n i d , e x t r a g e n e t i c m a t e r i z l l i k e t h e n . i - f - g e n e , codi.ng f o r hydrogenase and n i t r o g e n a s e , and morphologi- c a l g e n e s c o u l d be i n s e r t e d i n t o i t u s i n g c u r r e n t t e c h - n i q - 2 . e ~ of g e n e t i c g r a f t i n g .

L e t u s s.ss!?me f o r a moment t h a t t h e mechanism t o i n d u c e and s h a p e t h e g a l l , b i o c h e m i c a l l y and a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y , i s under con- t r o l . What s h o u l d w e t r y t o do?

The a n s x e r i s condensed i n F i g u r e s 3 and 4. The t r e e can be s e e n a s a mzchFne p r o d u c i n g s u g a r s ( p h o t o s y n t h a t e s ) from hydrogen and C 0 2 . Hydrogen i s o b t a i n e d by decomposing w a t e r w i t h s o l a r l i g h t ; t h e c h l o r o p h y l l system d o e s j u s t t h a t . The p h o t o s y n t h a t e s f l o w from t h e l e a v e s down t o t h e s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e ; t h e s t r o n g - e s t f l o w i s i n t h e stem. Somewhere i n t h e stem a l a r g e g a l l should Le ~ o c a t ~ d . I t s h o u l d be i z r g e enough t o s e q u e s t e r a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n of t h e s u g a r flow and have a tough s k i n and a spongy i n t e - r i o r , c h z r a c t e r i s t i c s n o t uncommon i n g a l l s ; and it s h o u l d produce something t h a t i s e a s i l y o b t a i n e d from t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e sug- a r s and which i s , of c o u r s e , a d a p t e d t o t h e e n e r g y system down- s t r e a m .

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C02 PHOTONS O2

1 I /

.---

# - \

---

_\

Y(COH~)

⁺

^H20+

^'1

I + ^H2

H2° 4 (-C02 + 2H2

_{T - +}

-

^I

+-- ---

^-'

I I GALL

HYDROGEN TREE

Figure 3. Graphical presentation of the proposal with a very schematic chemistry. The gall actuates a reverse of photosynthesis and makes hydrogen (or methane) avail- able in an enclosed cavity that can be tapped by a collector pipe.

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The t h r e e p r o d u c t s d e s e r v i n g most a t t e n t i o n i n my o p i n i o n , a r e , i n i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r of i n t e r e s t , m e t h a n o l , m e t h a n e , and h y d r o g e n . A l l t h r e e c a n be o b t a i n e d from s u g a r s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e e n z y m a t i c m a c h i n e r y t h a t c a n b e f o u n d ready-made i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e b a c t e r i a . Hydrogen p r o d u c t i o n a c t u a l l y o c c u r s a l s o i n t h e b l u e g r e e n a l g a e , where t h e p r e c i s e r e a c t i o n which m i r r o r s p h o t o s y n t h e s i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 i s u s e d t o g e n e r a t e hydrogen f o r s u b s e q u e n x f i x a t i o n o f a t m o s p h e r i c n i t r o g e n .

From: i i e r e t o T h e r e

911 t h i s would l o o k l i k e p i e i n t h e s k y were i t n o t f o r t h e f a c t k h a t t h e s y s t e m a l r e a d y e x i s t s and o p e r a t e s , on t h e g r a n d s c a l e comion i n n a t u r e . R h i z o b i u m r o o t n o d u l e s i n l e g u m i n o u s p l a n t ; , which f i x n i t r o g e n from t h e a t m o s p h e r e , a r e n o t f a r from o u r s p e c i f i c a t i o n e x c e p t w i t h r e s p e c t t o s i z e . T h e s e n o d u l e s a r e complex s t r u c t u r e s i n which a t m o s p h e r i c n i t r o g e n c a n f l o w t h r o u g h t h e w a l l s of t h e n o d u l e and combine w i t h t h e hydrogen g e n e r a t e d by t h e s p l i t t i n g o f s u g a r s t h r o u g h a s e t o f enzymes.

Oxyge~? I s t r a p p e d by a form o f haemoglobin, l e g - h a e m o g l o b i n , which khen r e l e a s e s i t t o t h e b a c t e r i u m , which i s a n n b l i g a t e

a e r o b l . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s s i d e - l o o p i s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l enzymes for n i t x o g e n f i x a t i o n , h y d r o g e n a s e and n i t r o g e n a s e , a r e v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o oxygen p o i s o n i n g .

, i h l z o b i a s e q u e s t e r a s i z e a b l e amount o f t h e p h o t o s y n t h a t e p r o d u c e d by t h e i r h o s t , p e r h a p s 3 0 % , w i t h o u t , however, o v e r d r a w i n g

i t preaunab1:r v i a r e g u l a t o r y f e e d b a c k p r o c e s s [ I 01

.

^{They ob-}

v i o u s l y p o s s e s s a l l o t h e r f e e d b a c k s n e c e s s a r y f o r a harmonious s y m b i o s i s [ 1 2 ] , Presumably b e c a u s e o f t h e open n o d u l e s t r u c t u r e needed f o r n i t r o g e n t o d i f f u s e i n t o i t , t h e n o d u l e s l e a k hydrogen

i n t o t h e a t r i ~ c s p h e r e . I t h a s been e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e U S s o y b e a n p l a n t a t i o n s l e a k a b o u t 30 b i l l i o n m3 o f hydrogen e v e r y y e a r [ 101

.

A s ihs!7 a r e , r h i z o b i u m r o o t n o d u l e s c o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r o u r p u r p o s e , 50% v a r i o u s r e a s o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g :

-

ZhFzobiun b a c t e r i a a r e e x t r e m e l y s e l e c t i v e i n t h e s e n s e

<-,a .k e a c h leguminous s p e c i e s h a s a s p e c i a l i z e d s y m b i o n t . A . t u m e f a c i e n s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s v e r y a s p e c i f i c a s it c a n i n f e c t most b r o a d l e a v e d p l a n t s . A s p e c i f i c i t y may b e k r z n s f e r a b l e o n c e i t s mechanisms a r e u n d e r s t o o d .

-

^Then o d u l e s a r e v e r y s m a l l . But h e r e a g a i n , A . t u m e f a c i e n s i s 2

goes

example of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f g e n e r a t i n g l a r g e g a l l s .

-

^.^-^t1 n e F r

-

s t r a c i u r e i s b e t t e r a d o p t e d t o s e e p i n g r a t h e r t h a n t o h o l a i n g . I n s t e a d , t h e complex a r c h i t e c t u r e of many i n s e c t g a l l s woul6. p r o v i d e b e t t e r f l e x i b i l i t y i n e n g i n e e r i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i o n p i p e s .

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CEUWALL

@

HOSl C E U IRANWORMED

HOSl C E U

CROWN G A L L S FROM AGROBACTER T U M E F A C I E N S

Figure

4.

A possible line of attack could be to transmit the information for building a gall with the desired prop- erties through a broad-spectrum infectious agent like

t h e

4grobaciZZus tumefaciens. A-tum~faciens is cap- able ot at-tacking most broad-leaf plants, producing an unorganized gall: the Crown Gall

i 7 ] .

I

think that the above considerations reduce the pipe dream to a very complex but manageable problem. As the 2arallel dream of transfering the nitrogen fixing capacity to graminaceous plants has stimulated intensive research,

I

should say that the problem lies within the mainstream of

RED.

The hierarchical structure of the system can now be visualized:

- Antenna chlorophyll molecules, the primary photoreceptors that, in arrays up to about 100, convey the energy collected to reaction centers or "traps" all contained in the chloro- plast membrane.

- Chloroplasts are organized inside a ceZZ providing the proper management of operation and repair, and exporting the products.

- Cells are organized in a leaf and the leaves in a tree, with

its stem centralizing the product flow;

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-

The g a l l p r o v i d e s t h e c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l i n t e r f a c e t o t h e n e x t l e v e l i n t h e h i e r a r c h y , and a s m a l l p i p e d r a w i n g h y d r o g e n f o r a h i e r a r c h y o f c o l l e c t o r s l e a d s upward t o a t r u n k p i p e l i n e .

A r e c u r r e n t q u e s t i o n i n s o l a r - b a s e d s y s t e m s i s s t o r a g e , and a g a s e o u s f u e l p r o v i d e s a n e a t answer. Methane ( o r h y d r o g e n ) c a n b e e c o n o m i c a l l y s t o r e d i n p o r o u s u n d e r g r o u n d s t r u c t u r e s l i k e a q u i - f e r s o r e x h a u s t e d g a s f i e l d s [ 5 ] i n amounts s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e a s e a s o n a l b u f f e r . The t r e e i t s e l f may p r o v i d e g a s g e n e r a t i o n a t n i g h t .

How much e n e r g y may w e draw from s u c h a s y s t e m ? A s an e a s y t o remember round f i g u r e f o r r u l e o f thumb c a l c u l a t i o n s , I would s u g g e s t o n e w a t t p e r s q u a r e m e t e r . I t i s n o t a s m a l l f i g u r e . On t h e b a s i s o f a c t u a l l y f o r e s t e d a r e a s , a l l l a r g e w o r l d r e g i o n s c o u l d b e e n e r g y i n d e p e n d e n t , i n c l u d i n g Europe!

Is it p o s s i b l e t o improve on t h a t f i g u r e ? W e l l , o n c e o n e h a s s t a r t e d f i d d l i n g w i t h p l a n t p h y s i o l o g y o n e c a n g o v e r y f a r i n d e e d a s e x p e r i e n c e shows [ I l l . A f i r s t l i n e o f a t t a c k c o u l d c o n s i s t i n i n h i b i t i n g p l a n t p h o t o r e s p i r a t i o n w i t h s u b s t a n c e s p r o d u c e d by t h e g a l l [13]. Trees may w a s t e i n p h o t o r e s p i r a t i o n h c l f o f t h e e n e r g y t h e y c o l l e c t a n d c h e m i c a l i n h i b i t i o n a p p e a r s p o s s i b l e . C o n c l u s i o n s

W e h a v e p r o p o s e d a new way o f l o o k i n g a t s o l a r e n e r g y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f v a r i o u s e n e r g y s y s t e m s , some o f which seem t o h a v e e n e r g y t o t h r o w away a n d some o f which seem t o b e i n n e e d o f i t . By f c c u s i n g on t h e s y s t e m ' s c e n t r a l problem a s o l u t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d which a F p e a r s t o f i t t h e l c w c a p i t a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , a n d t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s . T h i s i s d o n e b y c r e a t i n g a p r o p e r i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n a v a s t s o l a r c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m , t h e f o r e s t s , and a n e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y t r a n s - p o r t a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , t h e n a t u r a l g a s p i p e l i n e n e t . Development o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l f i x , however, w i l l be a t o u g h c h a l - l e n g e even f o r t h e advanced n a t i o n s , and p r o b a b l y a t t h e l i m i t o f t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l competence.

To g i v e an example, t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y complex r e g u l a t o r y s y s t e m s a t t h e g e n e t i c , c e l l u l a r , and o r g a n i s m i c l e v e l , a r e o n l y d i m l y u n d e r s t o o d [ 1 2 ] , and w e p r o p o s e t o m a n i p u l a t e them i n o r d e r t o s y n t h e s i z e a v i t a l p a r a s i t e .

The f a c t , however, t h a t t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f g a l l s have been e v o l v e d by a b r o a d v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i s m s , l e n d s a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s t o t h e e n t r e p r i s e , i f i n t h e l o n g r u n .

T h i s p a p e r was i n f a c t w r i t t e n w i t h a n o t h e r p u r p o s e i n mind, t o show t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f s y s t e m s when s u b - s t r u c t u r e s a r e s t r o n g l y c o u p l e d .

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In the mass of papers dealing with solar energy I chose this one because the author tries hard toward a balanced view of the problem in the frame of its technical, poli- tical and historical constraints.

[2] Takla, A., and C. Mustacchi, A p p l i c a t i o n d e l ' e n e r g i e s o l a i r e a u S e n e g a l , M a l i e t N i g e r . ~P/~AF/77/014/11-01/31,

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springe^

Verlag, 1975.

The. figures given are approximate and only indicative.

In spite of the help from satellites and progress in ground measuremenks some controversy remains.

[41 Szego, G.C., and C.C. Kempt, Energy Forest and Fuel Planta- tions, C h e m t e c , ^275,May 1973.

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reduced to very few principles and stable parameters, lending much credibility to long-term forecasting.

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[81 H o l l a e n d e r , A. ( e d . ) , G e n e t i c E n g i n e e r i n g f o r N i t r o g e n F i x a t i o n , P l e n u m , 1977.

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[ I 3 1 Z e l i t c h , I . , I m p r o v i n g t h e E f f i c i e n c y o f P h o t o s y n t h e s i s , S c i e n c e , 1 8 8 , 6 2 6 , 9 May 1975.