The curved staff in the ancient Near East as a predecessor of the etruscan lituus

The curved staff in the Ancient Near East as a predecessor of the Etruscan lituus

Claus Ambos and Ingrid Krauskopf

INTRODUCTION*

Everywhere a n d at all times, h e r d s m e n h a v e u s e d crooks to catch animals of their flocks b y the legs or horns. Presumably, such staffs w e r e also used quite early as symbols of p o w e r or as ritual instru­

ments, whereby their users m a y not always have b e e n conscious of the fact that they w e r e u s i n g i m p l e m e n t s of pastoral origin ­ even if the con­

ception of rulers as the s h e p h e r d s of their people is w i d e s p r e a d . The h e r d s m e n d i d n o t stop u s i n g t h e m w h e n their crooks b e c a m e m o d e l s for ritual i m p l e m e n t s a n d sceptres. For that r e a s o n , o n e could a l w a y s fall back o n c o n t e m p o r a r y h e r d s ­ m e n ' s staffs, w h i c h m a y h a v e often stood at one's disposal as m o d e l s in various forms. This can be illustrated b y a look at the h e r d s m e n ' s staffs of the 20th century. A staff resembling an elongated w a l k i n g ­ s t i c k (fig. I)1 is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m m o n , w h i l e a s h e p h e r d ' s crook still in use in G e r m a n y t o d a y resembles quite exactly the Egyptian heqat- scepter (fig. 2).2

It h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y s u r m i s e d t h a t t h e curved staff ­ in particular, the Hittite curved staff

­ could h a v e b e e n a m o d e l for the Etrusco­Roman lituus.3 But no­one has ever v e n t u r e d b e y o n d this s o r t of g e n e r a l s u p p o s i t i o n , a n d this q u e s t i o n only t h e n b e c o m e s really interesting w h e n o n e

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Fig. 1. Shepherd near Boadilla, Spain (photo U. Franke).

Fig. 2. Shepherd near Heidelberg, Germany (photo K. Katzenberger-Ruf).

concerns oneself m o r e closely w i t h it. A r e all of these staffs d e r i v e d f r o m a single m o d e l ? W h a t were they u s e d for, w h e n , a n d b y w h o m ? Did their p u r p o s e change w i t h their a d o p t i o n in the West?

This type of investigation cannot b e carried o u t b y a single discipline alone. Logically, it is subdi­

v i d e d into at least t w o chapters: an older, Eastern one, w i t h w h i c h w e begin, a n d a later, Etruscan chapter, for w h i c h ­ as always in Etruscology ­ the a l m o s t c o m p l e t e lack of literary sources m a k e s itself sorely felt.

T H E CURVED STAFF IN THE A N C I E N T N E A R EAST

A curved staff, a crook, is attested in Mesopotamia as well as in Syria a n d in Anatolia (fig. 3) as a cul­

tic tool u s e d b y ritual experts, kings, a n d gods. In M e s o p o t a m i a , the c u r v e d staff u s e d in cultic a n d ritual context is called gamlu in A k k a d i a n (that is, Babylonian­Assyrian). In A n a t o l i a , t h e crook is n a m e d kalmus in Hittite. These staffs m i g h t h a v e originally been the tools of a shepherd or a hunter.

Since various kinds of sceptres and staffs, straight a n d curved, are attested in the Ancient N e a r East b o t h in the written sources a n d in the archaeolog­

ical record, it goes w i t h o u t saying, that it is often quite difficult to identify the s h a p e a n d features of a specific staff a n d to correlate the written a n d the archaeological evidence.

The curved staff as cultic tool in Mesopotamia The c u r v e d staff is attested in M e s o p o t a m i a as a cultic tool of ritual experts, gods, a n d kings. In A k k a d i a n , this crook is called gamlu, in S u m e r i a n g a m , z u b i or zubu.4 If w e take a look in detail at the m a n y curved staffs attested in the archaeolog­

ical record w h i c h can b e identified as gamlu o n the basis of the textual evidence, w e will see that these staffs s h o w different lengths a n d differently f o r m e d curves. The gamlu w a s m a d e of w o o d , b u t c o u l d b e p l a t e d w i t h metal.5 T h e characteristic feature of the gamlu w a s its p u r p o s e a n d its inher­

ent quality: The gamlu w a s a characteristic ritual w e a p o n of the exorcist, which he used for repelling evil forces a n d for p u r i f y i n g . In lexical lists, a Originalveröffentlichung in: Bouke van der Meer , L. (Hrsg.), Material Aspects of Etruscan Religion. Proceedings of the International Colloquium Leiden, May 29 and 30, 2008, Babesch Suppl. 16, 2010, S. 127-153

Mari

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Fig. 3. Map of the Near East. Toponyms transmitted in the languages of the Cuneiform or Classical tradition are rendered in italics (map by C. Ambos).

S u m e r i a n t e r m to designate the exorcist is ' M a n carrying the crook in his h a n d ' .6

T h e a r c h e t y p a l r i t u a l e x p e r t s w e r e m y t h i c a l sages called apkallu. These apkallu w e r e of h u m a n , bird-like or fish-like appearance. O n a Kassite seal f r o m the second half of the 2n d m i l l e n n i u m BC, a iish-apkallu is s h o w n w i t h a crook (fig. 4).7 Given the fact that according to the texts a curved staff gamlu w a s the characteristic tool of the exorcist, this crook in the h a n d s of the apkallu can b e iden­

tified as a representation of a gamlu.

The gamlu w a s w i e l d e d b y kings a n d g o d s in ritual a n d cultic contexts. According to the ritual series Surpu f r o m the 1s t m i l l e n n i u m BC, the g o d A m u r r u a n d his manifestation A N . A N . M A R . T U in their quality as purifier a n d exorcist carried the crook t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e banduddu-vessel w h i c h contained the holy water:8

' A m u r r u (and) A N . A N . M A R . T U , w h o c a r r y the gamlu-ciook (and) the banduddu-bncket, the purifier a n d exorcist of h e a v e n a n d earth.' Similar i n f o r m a t i o n is already obtained f r o m a n O l d Babylonian seal legend f r o m the first half of the 2n d m i l l e n n i u m BC:9

'AN.AN.MAR.TU, w h o carries the p u r e crook in his h a n d , w h o releases f r o m sin.'

Indeed, according to an Old Babylonian text f r o m Mari (in present­day Syria), a representation of the g o d A m u r r u is described as wielding the gamlu- crook.10 A m u r r u is represented on Old­Babylonian cylinder seals w i t h a crook or e v e n t w o crooks, o n e in e a c h h a n d , w h i c h c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d as gamlu according to the textual evidence (figs 5-6).n

The textual evidence m a k e s clear that the gam­

lu h a d the inherent quality to p u r i f y a n d to release f r o m sin. Interestingly, there is also k n o w n a tool of t h e exorcist w h i c h b o r e t h e S u m e r i a n n a m e 'release­wood' (gis­bur). This term is explained b y the A k k a d i a n w o r d gamlu.12 We m a y a s s u m e that 'release­wood' a n d gamlu are only different terms for one a n d the s a m e exorcist's tool.

The gamlu is also attested as attribute of apotro­

paic figurines which were deposited in a building to defend it a n d its inhabitants against d e m o n s a n d external evil influences. According to ritual texts, the statuette of the protective deity of a h o u s e w a s to hold a gamlu in order to g u a r d the building.1 3

The gamlu is also attested as a w e a p o n of the god Marduk, the h e a d of the Babylonian pantheon.

According to the texts, the constellation gamlu w a s t h e ' w e a p o n of t h e h a n d of M a r d u k ' .1 4 I n d e e d M a r d u k is depicted w i t h a curved staff (fig. 7).15

Also the god Assur, the h e a d of the Assyrian p a n ­

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Fig. 4. A /i'sfc-apkalru, the archetypal exorcist, lifting the crook (gamlu). Representation on a Kassite cylin­

der seal (Porada 1948, no 581).

Fig. 5. The god Amurru wielding the crook (gamlu).

Representation on an Old Babylonian cylinder seal (Kupper 1961, fig. 7).

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Fig. 6. The god Amurru wielding two curved staffs.

Representation on an Old Babylonian cylinder seal (Kupper 1961, fig. 23).

theon, is depicted w i t h a crook.1 6 We k n o w that likewise the g o d d e s s Istar as well as the g o d Sin of A m u r r u wielded the gamlu.17 Sin w a s the m o o n

Fig. 7. The god Marduk carrying the crook (gamlu).

Representation on a 'boundary stone' (kudurru) of the Babylonian king Meli­Sipak (King 1912, pi. XXI).

god, a n d his connection to the c u r v e d staff m a y be the similarity of the crescent m o o n to the curve of a crook. In Ugarit, the god Hilal, the n e w m o o n , is n a m e d 'lord of the crook' (b'l gml).w

The king held the crook d u r i n g the performance of exorcistic rituals to d e f e n d himself against evil d e m o n s . The gamlu w a s n o t p a r t of his royal in­

signia, as w e r e other k i n d s of staffs s u c h as the 'sceptre' (hattu) or the ' s t a f f (sibirru).19 The differ­

e n t contexts in w h i c h t h e s e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of staffs were carried b y the king can be demonstrated b y their u s e in t h e r i t u a l ' H o u s e of s p r i n k l i n g w a t e r ' (bit sala'me), a ritual of investiture for the Babylonian king in order to p r e p a r e h i m for his p r e s e n c e at t h e N e w Year's festival d u r i n g the a u t u m n equinox.2 0 In front of the rising sun, the king u n d e r w e n t a n investiture w i t h his royal re­

galia in a complex of reed buildings in the steppe a n d w a s p u r i f i e d b y being sprinkled w i t h w a t e r (hence the ritual's name). A m o n g the insignia given to h i m w e r e the crown, the bow, the mace, a n d also t h e 'sceptre' (hattu) a n d the ' s t a f f (sibirru).

A f t e r this i n v e s t i t u r e in t h e s t e p p e t h e r u l e r r e t u r n e d to his palace. There followed s o m e ex­

orcistic rituals w h i c h should remove every kind of i m p u r i t y f r o m the b o d y of the king. The king re­

ceived a gamlu f r o m the exorcist a n d recited the incantation 'I h a v e lifted m y crooks!', w h i c h will b e discussed in detail below. Then h e directed a

Fig. 8. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III. (858-824 BC) with a short curved staff (Strommenger 1970, fig. 5).

Fig. 9. Seal from Karahdyuk: Worshipper approaching a deity. Both figures do carry a crook

the curve of which is pointing downward (Otto 2000, fig. 258).

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short prayer to the beer g o d in his capacity as 'the o n e w h o relaxes g o d a n d m a n ' . This p r a y e r im­

plied a kind of magic analogy: just as alcohol h a d a 'relaxing' effect o n m i n d a n d b o d y so the king w a n t e d to be 'released' f r o m his sins a n d impurity.

The A k k a d i a n (Babylonian­Assyrian) w o r d u s e d here (pasaru) m e a n s both 'to relax' a n d 'to release'.

After p l e a d i n g w i t h the beer g o d for release, the k i n g p e r f o r m e d a beer­related act w h i c h w o u l d i n d e e d release h i m f r o m all physical r e m n a n t s of sin a n d impurity attached to his body: H e touched a f e r m e n t i n g vat a n d b y d o i n g so transmitted all his i m p u r i t y into this vessel f r o m w h i c h it could n o t escape a n d w h e r e it w o u l d b e f e r m e n t e d .

Sceptre (hattu) a n d staff (sibirru) were carried b y the king during his investiture with his insignia, the crook gamlu, however, only d u r i n g the following exorcistic ritual.

The gamlu-ciook as a ritual tool did not belong to the regalia w h i c h the k i n g w i e l d e d in order to rule his people. N o t e for example h o w the hattu- sceptre a n d the sz'iwrw­staff are characterized in royal inscriptions. 'The just hattu-sceptve that ex­

tends the realm, the merciless sibirru-siaff for the

destruction of the enemies h e (the g o d Assur) p u t into m y h a n d ' declares the Assyrian king Senna­

cherib (704­681 BC).21 K i n g T u k u l t i ­ N i n u r t a I.

(1243­1207 BC) characterizes himself as 'the one w h o s h e p h e r d e d his land in green pastures with, his beneficent sz'frz'rrw­staff '.22 So these sceptres a n d staffs h a d a very different quality in comparison to the gamlu w h i c h released f r o m sin a n d purified.

From textual evidence w e k n o w that Old­Baby­

lonian kings m a d e images of themselves carrying the crook. King A m m i d i t a n a (1683­1647 BC) intro­

d u c e d into Ebabbar, t h e t e m p l e of t h e s u n g o d U t u / S a m a s , a statue of his majesty w h i c h held a curved staff of gold.2 3 His successor A m m i s a d u q a (1646­1626 BC)vintroduced into Ebbabbar for the s u n g o d U t u / S a m a s a statue of his sovereignty, w h i c h held a c u r v e d staff of gold.2 4 Statues f r o m t e m p l e precincts are r e p r e s e n t i n g N e o ­ A s s y r i a n k i n g s f r o m t h e 1s t m i l l e n n i u m BC w h o h o l d a short crook, its curve lowered towards the g r o u n d (fig. 8). This crook m a y well b e the gamlu?5

From the textual record w e k n o w that the crook w a s 'raised' or 'lifted' w h e n it w a s in use. The fol­

lowing lines are f r o m the ritual Surpu a n d describe the use of the crook in the ritual (Surpu Tablet VIII 11. 1­5):2*

Incantation: I h a v e lifted m y crooks, I release you.

Asalluhi, king of the gods, M a r d u k , lord of life, the big merciless weapon(s) m a y release you, m a y absolve you,

redressor of the w r o n g e d m a n (and) w o m a n , merciless, raging, f u r i o u s w e a p o n ,

sz'tew­disease, plague, death(­demon), w i n d a n d lightning of M a r d u k m a y release you, m a y ab­

solve you.

This fits well w i t h t h e archaeological evidence.

The gamlu can indeed be depicted lifted (i.e. curve pointing u p w a r d ; figs 4-6), indicating that its bearer is involved in a ritual p e r f o r m a n c e . It can, h o w ­ ever, also b e s h o w n lowered t o w a r d the g r o u n d (i.e. its curve pointing d o w n w a r d ; ^ 7-8). In this case, the crook w a s a p p a r e n t l y n o t in actual use.

The crook in Syria and Anatolia in the first half of the 2nd millennium

Some attestations of the crook called gamlu f r o m Syria (Mari a n d Ugarit) w e r e m e n t i o n e d in the preceeding p a r a g r a p h . Representations of curved staffs are well attested in the archaeological record, especially o n cylinder seals. Seals in Syrian styles have not only been f o u n d in Syria proper, b u t also in neighbouring regions as for example Anatolia.2 7

Fig. 10. Sitting deity lifting a curved staff. Before the sitting god stands a woman (presumably a goddess), behind him stands a worshipper with a crook (Otto 2000, fig. 398).

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Fig. 22. Seal from Kiiltepe: Standing man wearing a long garment and lifting a curved staff, woman with long hair lifting a twig, and kneeling nude hero (Otto 2000, fig. 185).

The v a r i o u s styles, their regional distribution a n d their chronology as well as the m o t i v e s at­

tested o n the seals h a v e been studied in detail b y A. Otto.2 8

O n the extant representations, various types of c u r v e d staffs are held in a characteristic w a y b y p e r s o n s of different position in specific situations.

A recurrent motif depicted o n seals is a w o r ­ shipper carrying a crook in a characteristic posi­

tion. It is held with its curve pointing d o w n a n d forward. This position is attested for w o r s h i p p i n g kings as well as for other worshippers. The wor­

shipping person has as a rule the other h a n d raised before t h e mouth.2 9 Interesting is a seal f o u n d at Karahoyiik (near Konya) in Anatolia. It s h o w s a w o r s h i p p e r presenting himself to a bigger stand­

ing p e r s o n , p r e s u m a b l y a deity. Both w o r s h i p p e r a n d deity wield a crook w i t h their curves point­

ing d o w n a n d forward. The worshipper has raised the other h a n d before his m o u t h ; the other a r m of the deity h a n g s d o w n alongside the b o d y (fig. 9).30

A curved staff is in fact well attested a m o n g the insignia of deities, b u t as a rule it is lifted in front of the b o d y w i t h its c u r v e p o i n t i n g u p w a r d . In this w a y are represented gods sitting on a throne

Fig. 12. Two nude males standing opposite each other;

one of them carries a curved staff, the other one a twig;

between them is a censer; a third nude male carries a twig, too (Otto 2000, fig. 264).

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Fig. 13. A woman wearing a wig lifts a curved staff.

Before her are standing two males opposite each other;

between them and also before the woman censers can be seen (Otto 2000, fig. 252).

(fig. 10).31 Interesting are representations of t w o p e r s o n s (gods?) sitting e n t h r o n e d directly facing each other; b o t h of t h e m are lifting a crook in front of the body. Between t h e m is placed a n incense burner.3 2

Often the accurate identification and explanation of motives, figures a n d scenarios depicted on the seals remains v a g u e or e v e n speculative. Difficult to classify are representations of standing m e n clad in long g a r m e n t s lifting a crook in front of their b o d y (fig. II).33 T h e s e m e n m i g h t b e h u m a n s , heroes or gods. Also attested are representations of t w o n u d e males s t a n d i n g opposite each other, separated only b y an altar or censer (fig. 22). O n e of t h e m e n lifts a twig, t h e other o n e a c u r v e d staff.3 4 It is n o t clear w h e t h e r t h e s e n u d e s are h u m a n s or rather supernatural beings. Also w o m e n can carry a crook w h i c h they lift in front of their b o d y ; these females m i g h t b e priestesses or god­

desses (fig. 23).35

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In this context should b e mentioned the s t a m p c y l i n d e r seals ( p e r h a p s f r o m Cilicia) of t h e so- called Tyszkiewicz-group f r o m about the 18^/17^

centuries. O n t h e s e seals w o r s h i p p i n g p e r s o n s w i t h crooks p o i n t i n g d o w n a n d f o r w a r d a p p e a r in f r o n t of a two-faced g o d a n d a deity sitting on a throne. The deity e n t h r o n e d seems to raise sev­

eral short crooks in his h a n d (fig. 14).36 A s t a m p seal f r o m a b o u t t h e 17th c e n t u r y BC, a l l e g e d l y f r o m Bogazkoy, has eight facets o n its sides; on one facet, a p e r s o n is depicted w i e l d i n g n o less t h a n two long crooks, one pointing back and d o w n w a r d , one p o i n t i n g f o r w a r d (fig. 15).37

In spite of all the difficulties of interpretation of the representations depicted o n the seals dis­

c u s s e d here, it b e c o m e s clear that c u r v e d staffs a n d the positions in which they were carried m u s t h a v e b e e n important elements of cultic interaction a n d communication.

The crook in the Hittite world

Several k i n d s of crooks are attested in the Hittite archaeological record. Likewise are various kinds of sceptres a n d staffs attested in the texts. Hittite g o d s a n d the Hittite k i n g w i e l d e d a l o n g crook w h i c h w a s t e r m e d kalmus.38 This kalmus w a s a w o o d e n staff, w h i c h could b e plated or decorated w i t h precious metal.3 9 The Hittite e m p i r e existed in the m i d d l e a n d the second half of the 2n d mil­

lennium BC. In the archaeological record, however, a crook u s e d in ritual context is already attested in the first half of the 2n d m i l l e n n i u m BC (see above) a n d still in the Late Hittite k i n g d o m s after the e n d of the Hittite e m p i r e shortly after 1200 BC.

Sometimes the long crook kalmus is interpreted as having been originally a shepherd's tool.40 There is also attested a m u c h shorter crook w h i c h w a s u s e d as a tool for hawking. This short curved staff w a s u s e d b y the falconer as a k i n d of t h r o w i n g stick to flush the h u n t e d animal w h i c h w a s t h e n chased a n d killed b y the h a w k . These t w o k i n d s of curved staffs, the long kalmus a n d the falconer's crook, s h o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d . T h a t the l o n g

Fig. 14. The Tyszkiewicz seal (Boehmer/Giiterbock 1987, fig. 24al.

Fig. 15. Person wielding two crooks on a seal allegedly from Bogazkoy (Boehmer/Giiterbock 1987, fig. 24cl).

crook h a d originally b e e n a falconer's tool seems rather improbable. It is interesting, however, that the curve of long crook carried b y king Mursili III.

(ca 1272­1265 BC), as attested on seal impressions, e n d s in the h e a d of a bird (fig. 22).41

The crook in the textual record

The Hittite king w i e l d e d a long crook w h i c h w a s t e r m e d kalmus. The etymology of this w o r d is n o t clear.42 V. H a a s connects it w i t h the Greek w o r d kdlamos, 'reed'.4 3 It cannot b e excluded, however, that kalmus is related to the A k k a d i a n gamlu a n d Ugaritic gml.44

This crook w a s u s e d b y the ruler in ritual con­

text, in connection w i t h adorations, offerings a n d libations. The kalmus was, however, n o t u s e d d u r ­ ing the actual cult performance, b u t rather d u r i n g the procession before a n d after that, w h e n the king p r o c e e d e d solemnly to the place of w o r s h i p a n d left it after h a v i n g p e r f o r m e d the ritual action.45

N o r m a l l y , the k i n g d i d n o t c a r r y t h e kalmus w h e n r i d i n g in a chariot or w h e n sitting o n the throne. W h e n the king w a s sitting o n the throne, the kalmus w a s placed o n or at the right side of his royal seating a c c o m o d a t i o n . W h e n t h e k i n g r o d e in a vehicle, a palace squire or the chief of the palace squires carried the kalmus for h i m . The position of the palace official w i t h the kalmus in t h e escort f o l l o w i n g t h e ruler in his carriage is described in the instructions for the royal b o d y ­ guard.4 6 W h e n the king h a d arrived at his desti­

nation, h e alighted f r o m his vehicle a n d w a s given t h e kalmus b y t h e p a l a c e official. T h e n h e p r o ­ ceeded o n foot a n d w i t h the crook in his h a n d to his final d e s t i n a t i o n . H a v i n g a r r i v e d there, t h e king r e t u r n e d the crook to the official.

The following passage illustrates this use of the kalmus:47

But after the king has gone the r o u n d s w i t h the libation, the chief of the p a l a c e squires gives the kalmus of gold to him. Two palace squires are w a l k i n g in front of the king. The king goes out. A n d the chief of the palace squires takes the kalmus for him. The king sits d o w n in the (light) cart a n d goes away. But after that, t h e y say:

'TalisaV The king alights f r o m the (light) cart.

The chief of the palace squires gives the kalmus to the king. Two palace squires are w a l k i n g in front of the king. The king enters the halentuwa- building. The chief of the palace squires takes the kalmus for the king. The king a n d the queen sit d o w n o n t h e t h r o n e . Two p a l a c e s q u i r e s b r i n g in the lance, the kalmus a n d the l i n e n cloth. A n d h e gives the linen cloth to the king.

The kalmus, however, h e places at the right side of the throne.

There is o n e interesting p a s s a g e in a ritual text describing h o w the kalmus is, u s e d in a n actual rit­

u a l p e r f o r m a n c e d u r i n g t h e last d a y of t h e AN.TAH.SUMs a r­festival:4 8

[The kin]g a n d the qu[een] are sitting. A n d the king [takes the kalmus. The chief] of the b o d y ­ g u a r d w a l k s in f r o n t . A n d [...] a taparwasu- bread [they] p u t next to the st[ov]e. Then in front t h e y are t a k i n f g a ] w a y five times [x s]arama- breads. Five times 10 s[«ram]«­breads they p[u]t d o w n behind. A n d there are x [sar]ama-br eads.

But o n o n e sarama-bread [are l]ying t h r e e p f e n i s s e s ] . A n d salt is p o u f r e d ] d o w n o n it.

A n d a 'thick bread', w h i c h w a l k s to the right of the king a n d the chief of the b o d y g u a r d goes a n d steps next to the 'thick bread'. The chief of the b u t c h e r s b r i n g s over w i t h a b a s k e t three penisses of rams. A n d one penis h e holds out to the king. The k i n g touches the taparwasu-bread w i t h the kalmus for the first time. But the chief of t h e b o d y g u a r d h o l d s the taparwasu-bread w i t h the h a n d below. A n d the chief (variant:

overseer) of the butchers p u t s one penis o n it.

A n d the overseer of the butchers again h o l d s o u t one penis to the king. The king touches the taparwasu-bread again for the second time w i t h the kalmus. But t h e chief of t h e b o d y g u a r d holds the taparwasu-bread w i t h the h a n d below.

But the overseer of the cooks p u t s one penis on it. A n d the overseer of the cooks again holds out one p e n i s to the king. The k i n g a g a i n for the third time touches the taparwasu-bread w i t h the kalmus. [But the chief of the b o d y g u a r d hold]s the [tapa]rwasu-[bread w i t h the h a n d below.]

This ritual u n d o u b t e d l y served for the strength­

e n i n g of the king: By touching the penisses w i t h h i s crook, h e t r a n s m i t t e d t h e p o t e n c y a n d t h e p o w e r of the r a m s ' penisses to his o w n p e r s o n via the curved staff.

The kalmus w a s clearly a sign of rulership. Ac­

cording to the extant texts, only the king w i e l d e d a n d u s e d the kalmus, even if palace officials could carry this crook for the m o n a r c h o n certain occa­

sions. Officials a n d d i g n i t a r i e s w i e l d e d a staff, w h i c h is w r i t t e n w i t h the i d e o g r a m m GIDRU.4 9

A staff G I D R U (Akkadian:/zaffw) is also k n o w n f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a , it w a s a s t r a i g h t staff (see above).

The crook kalmus, as w e l l as the staff GIDRU, w a s also a n e m b l e m of gods.5 0 According to a cult inventory, the priest of deified M o u n t Tuna, w o r ­ shipped in the t o w n of Taparuta, kept n o less than ten Mmus­crooks, several earrings a n d a GIDRU­

staff in his house.5 1

For the s a k e of completeness I m e n t i o n the fact that a sign LITUUS (that is, a h i e r o g l y p h in the s h a p e of a crook) exists in the w r i t i n g system of Hieroglyphic Luwian.5 2 Luwian written with hiero­

glyphs is already attested in the Hittite empire a n d c o n t i n u e d to b e in u s e in the Late Hittite states until ca 700 BC.

Representations of the crook in the archaeological record

In the extant representations a crook is h e l d in a characteristic w a y b y persons of different position in specific situations:

* Living a n d deceased kings as well as g o d s are d e p i c t e d w i t h a crook in scenes of adoration, w o r s h i p a n d sacrifice. This curved staff can b e identified as the kalmus m e n t i o n e d in the texts.

A s a rule, the crook is held b y its bearer point­

i n g b a c k a n d d o w n w a r d s . O f t e n t h e k i n g is depicted in this p o s e leading a procession a n d s t a n d i n g directly in front of a n altar. G o d s a n d deceased kings can hold the crook pointing back a n d d o w n w a r d s w h e n they are w o r s h i p p e d or receive a sacrifice.

* A ruler can also carry the kalmus pointing back a n d d o w n w a r d s w h e n h e is embraced by a god.

* P e r s o n s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a p r o c e s s i o n can b e d e p i c t e d w i t h s h o u l d e r e d crooks. These p e r ­ sons, however, d o n o t w a l k at the h e a d of the procession. T h e y m i g h t b e palace officials car­

rying the kalmus for the king.

* Deities c a n carry a crook p o i n t i n g d o w n a n d f o r w a r d ; this is, however, only rarely attested.

A n example of the king w i t h the kalmus leading a procession a n d p e r f o r m i n g a n act of w o r s h i p can b e s e e n o n a f i s t - s h a p e d silver vessel f r o m t h e B o s t o n M u s e u m of Fine A r t s (fig. 16).53 K i n g Tuthalija II. (III.) (ca 1375-1355 BC) is at the h e a d of a procession of musicians a n d other cult par­

ticipants. The ruler s t a n d s in front of an altar a n d wields in one h a n d the crook p o i n t i n g back a n d d o w n w a r d s a n d p e r f o r m s w i t h his other h a n d a libation. Behind the altar the storm g o d is s h o w n together w i t h a bull w h i c h h e h o l d s on reins. The last p e r s o n in the procession led b y the king w i t h t h e c r o o k is a m a n w i t h a long, s t r a i g h t staff.

Behind this p e r s o n a vegetation god is rising f r o m w h a t s e e m s to b e c u r l i n g foliage. B e t w e e n this vegetation deity a n d the storm g o d is a b u i l d i n g of bricks w i t h o u t a gate. It is n o t clear w h e t h e r the procession or rather the storm g o d is e m a n a t ­ ing f r o m this building.

A similar scene is depicted on orthostats f r o m Alaca H o y u k (ca 1400/1200 BC; fig. 17).» The king is s h o w n being at the h e a d of a procession. In front of the ruler is a n altar a n d the statue of a bull o n a pedestal. The king has raised one h a n d in adora­

tion a n d h o l d s in his other h a n d the crook point­

ing back a n d d o w n w a r d s .

A m o n g t h e cult p a r t i c i p a n t s w a l k i n g in t h e

procession are acrobats, musicians a n d attendants t a k i n g care of t h e sacrificial a n i m a l s . A p e r s o n w a l k i n g in front of the h e r d has g r a s p e d a n ani­

m a l b y its horns. A n o t h e r m a n following the herd drives the animals w i t h a curved staff. This crook is m u c h shorter than the royal kalmus. The p e r s o n b e h i n d this m a n h o l d s a staff(?), the lower e n d of w h i c h is curved, the u p p e r e n d is lost.

The king in front of a sacrificial procession is also s h o w n o n several Late Hittite reliefs f r o m Malatya. King PUGNUS­mili (ca 11th or early 10th

c e n t u r y BC) is a t t e s t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s s t a n d i n g before a god, wielding in one h a n d the crook a n d l i b a t i n g w i t h his o t h e r h a n d . B e h i n d t h e r u l e r stands a small attendant w i t h a n animal to be sac­

rificed (fig. 18).55 This attendant grasps the animal b y its h e a d a n d does not hold a staff. The proces­

sion is here reduced to the key participants, i.e. the ruler a n d the p e r s o n in charge of the sacrificial animal.

A ruler w i t h a b a c k w a r d p o i n t i n g crook is rep­

resented also on a poorly­preserved Late Hittite stele f r o m Samsat, b u t the context is n o longer discernible.5 6

At first glance it m a y seem a contradiction to the textual evidence that the king is s h o w n p e r f o r m ­ ing a libation or adoration still carrying the kalmus

u

rm

2

1

Fig. 16. Procession and sacrifice being led by king Tuthalija II. (III.) carrying the kalmus.

Representation on a fist-shaped vessel (Boston) (Gtiterbock/Kendall 1995, fig. 3.7).

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Fig. 17. Orthostats from Alaca Hoyuk: Procession and sacrifice being led by the king carrying the k a l m u s (Mellinkl970/fig.2).

in one of his hands, whereas the texts suggest that the ruler gave his crook to a n official after h a v i n g arrived at the procession's destination a n d before p e r f o r m i n g the ritual action. It is, however, rather a n i c o n o g r a p h i c c o n v e n t i o n to m e r g e i n t o o n e scene these t w o successive sequences, the proces­

sion to the place of w o r s h i p a n d the ritual action p e r f o r m e d there.

It is interesting that the w a y the crook w a s car­

ried m i g h t h a v e d e p e n d e d on its bearer's position in the procession: If participants in a procession w h o are not proceeding at its h e a d wield a crook, they d o not hold it pointing back a n d d o w n w a r d s b u t rather over their shoulder. Scenes like this can b e seen o n vessels decorated w i t h relief friezes.

The first example is the vase f r o m ihandik (fig. 19;

(ca 1600 BC).57 The vase is d e c o r a t e d w i t h f o u r relief friezes depicting successive sequences of a cultic festival. Of special interest for our topic are the third and perhaps also the second frieze, where p e r s o n s carrying a crook are represented. I will first give s o m e general descriptions of the scenes depicted on the vase, following the interpretation of Haas.5 8

The first frieze s h o w s the p r e p a r a t i o n of the materia magica and a drinking ceremony of two per­

sons, which is accompanied b y music. The second frieze apparently shows three consecutive appear­

ances of the king. The ruler, not carrying a kalmus, proceeds at the h e a d of a procession. H a v i n g ar­

rived at his destination, h e participates in a bull sacrifice in front of the statue of a bull. A f t e r w a r d s the k i n g p e r f o r m s a libation in f r o n t of a n altar a n d a female p e r s o n (a priestess?).

O n t h e t h i r d frieze, a p r o c e s s i o n is d e p i c t e d which is directed towards a cult location, consist­

ing of a temple, a n d b e h i n d it a n altar, a vase a n d a bed. O n this b e d are sitting t w o persons, p e r h a p s the king a n d the queen. The king is unveiling the q u e e n . Altar, vase, a n d b e d , w h i c h are s h o w n b e h i n d the temple, are certainly to be u n d e r s t o o d

as being the interior f u r n i s h i n g s of the sanctuary.

The last frieze s h o w s musicians, acrobats a n d a couple p e r f o r m i n g a coitus a tergo.

It is interesting to note that the m o s t i m p o r t a n t sequences of the festival in the respective friezes are arranged one o n top of the other: The bull sac­

rifice in the second frieze, k i n g a n d q u e e n o n a b e d inside a temple, a n d finally a coitus, w h i c h m i g h t b e a fertility rite a n d the r e ­ e n a c t m e n t of the u n i o n of a divine couple.

A person participating in the procession towards the temple, w h i c h is depicted o n the third frieze, carries a long crook over his shoulder. The follow­

i n g p e r s o n m i g h t h a v e h a d a crook o v e r t h e shoulder, too, given the analogous position of the h a n d . (On the Bitik vase, w h i c h will b e discussed below, there are in fact represented t w o p e r s o n s w i t h a s h o u l d e r e d crook o n e b e h i n d the other.) P e r h a p s t w o other persons, s h o w n o n the sec­

o n d frieze, proceeding behind the king in the pro­

cession directed t o w a r d s the bull sacrifice a n d the statue of a bull, did h a v e a crook over their shoul­

der, too. Their h a n d s are in the s a m e position as those of the crook­bearers in the third frieze. The objects they carried, however, are d a m a g e d a n d c a n n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h certainty. B e h i n d t h e h e a d of one m a n , the remains of a curved object can b e seen.

4a

SLJBT I J ⁹ WfF ^{[I f/if}

Fig. 18. Relief from Malatya:

King PUGNUS-mili libating in front of a god (Hawkins 2000b,

pi. 148 monument no 5 fig. a).

y / \ A A A A / \ A A / W W W \ A A / \ A / \ A A A / V

wmmmmm mmmwmm mmmmmm

FfeQQ o^fJI : ^{IStMlsfiS i>t} SlrocPOi "

Fig. 19. The Inandik vase with relief friezes depicting various cultic actions, a procession, and a sacrifice (Ozgtig 1988, fig. 64).

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cs*.

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Fig. 20. The Bitik vase with relief scenes depicting cultic actions and a procession (Ozgug 1957, fig. 2).

In a similar way, a cultic festival is depicted on another relief vase f r o m Bitik (various dating pro­ posals include the 17t h/16t h/15t h centuries BC; fig.

20).59 Three friezes are preserved. In the first one w e see a s w o r d dance. In the second frieze a pro­

cession is s h o w n . Two of the participants h a v e a long crook over their shoulder. O n the third frieze, king a n d q u e e n are s h o w n in a building, the king unveiling the queen.

According to H a a s the persons carrying a crook over their s h o u l d e r m a y b e identified as palace officials, a m o n g t h e m certainly the chief of the palace squires, w h o in fact used to carry the kalmus for the king, if the ruler himself w a s n o t w i e l d i n g it.60 This at least fits well w i t h the textual evidence (see above).

The said p e r s o n s h a v e also b e e n interpreted as g o d s wielding the kalmus.61 Of course, also g o d s can carry the crook (see below), b u t in this case the persons in question, walking in a line w i t h the other participants of the procession t o w a r d s a cul­

tic location a n d a ritual action p e r f o r m e d there, are clearly h u m a n .

The p e r s o n s w i t h the crook over their shoulder h a v e also b e e n interpreted as s h e p h e r d s carrying a s h e p h e r d ' s crook.6 2 In fact, several t i m e s it is attested that sacrificial animals being led b y atten­

d a n t s are a c c o m p a n y i n g a cult procession. These a t t e n d a n t s either h a v e g r a s p e d a n animal b y its h e a d (as attested for example o n the reliefs f r o m

Fig. 21. The Hittite king MurSili III. carrying the k a l m u s is embraced by a god. Stamp seal impression (Otten 1993, fig. 17).

Alaca H o y i i k a n d M a l a t y a ) a n d d o n o t carry a crook at all, or one of t h e m can carry a quite short c u r v e d staff w h i c h is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r a t h e r l o n g crook (as a t t e s t e d o n a relief f r o m Alaca Hoyiik; figs 17-18). T h e p e r s o n s w i t h t h e crook depicted o n the vases, however, h a v e n o animals w i t h them, a n d their crook is m u c h longer t h a n the short curved staff of the a t t e n d a n t s h o w n o n the relief f r o m Alaca Hoyiik.

T h e k i n g is also h o l d i n g t h e c r o o k p o i n t i n g back a n d d o w n w a r d s w h e n h e is e m b r a c e d b y a god. In the sanctuary of Yazilikaya near H a t t u s a (Bogazkoy), king Tuthalija IV. (ca 1240­1215 BC) is d e p i c t e d o n a rock relief h o l d i n g t h e crook pointing back a n d d o w n w a r d s e m b r a c e d b y the g o d S a r r u m a .6 3 Similar s c e n e s a r e a t t e s t e d o n royal seals belonging to the g r o u p of the so­called ' e m b r a c e ­ s e a l s ' ('Umarmungssiegel') as t h e y are classified b y m o d e r n scholars.6 4 Seals of this kind can b e attributed to kings Muwatalli EL (ca 1290­

1272 BC) a n d Mursili III. (ca 1272­1265 BC; fig.

21)65

The king, however, does not necessarily carry the kalmus w h e n e m b r a c e d b y a god. O n a seal, Tuthalija IV. is s h o w n w i t h a lance e m b r a c e d b y the storm god.6 6 The seal of Hattusili EEL (ca 1265­

1240 BC) on the obverse of the tablet d o c u m e n t i n g the treaty b e t w e e n the Hittite empire a n d Egypt, w a s , a c c o r d i n g to the E g y p t i a n d e s c r i p t i o n , a n 'embrace­seal'. This description, however, is n o t detailed e n o u g h to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the king embraced b y a deity w a s carrying a crook or not.67

Fig. 22. Relief from Malatya: King PUGNUS-mili libates in front of a god who carries the crook (Hawkins 2000b, pi. 148 monument 7 fig. c).

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^{cM E}

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Fig. 23. Stele from Ispekcur/Malatya: King Arnu- wantis the younger libating in front of his late grand­

father Arnuwantis (Hawkins 2000b, pi. 143).

In the s a m e w a y as the Hittite king, also g o d s can be s h o w n carrying the crook pointing back and d o w n w a r d s . The s u n g o d Simige is r e p r e s e n t e d h o l d i n g the kalmuS this w a y a n d h a v i n g a w i n g e d s u n disc over his head.6 8

Fig. 24. Triad from Hattusa/Bogazkoy (Neve 19962~fig. 81).

A deity can b e depicted carrying the crook in this position in a sacrificial scene (fig. 22). O n Late Hittite orthostats f r o m Malatya, king P U G N U S - mili (ca 11th or early 10th c e n t u r y B Q is s h o w n (without kalmus) libating in front of the g o d Sar- r u m a a n d the s u n god. Both g o d s h o l d the crook pointing back a n d d o w n w a r d s .6 9

Also deceased rulers can b e depicted w i t h the kalmus which they carry in the same w a y as living kings p o i n t i n g back a n d d o w n w a r d s . O n a stele f r o m I s p e k c u r / M a l a t y a f r o m about the 11th cen­

t u r y BC, the late king A r n u w a n t i s is seen w i t h his crook p o i n t i n g back a n d d o w n w a r d s staying o n a m o u n t a i n , receiving a libation b y his g r a n d s o n , also n a m e d A r n u w a n t i s , s t a n d i n g o n a bull a n d carrying likewise a curved staff pointing back a n d d o w n w a r d s . The w o m a n b e h i n d A r n u w a n t i s the older is his w i f e a n d the g r a n d m o t h e r of A r n u ­ w a n t i s the y o u n g e r (fig. 23).70

All e x a m p l e s of rulers a n d g o d s h o l d i n g the crook p o i n t i n g back a n d d o w n w a r d s treated so far w e r e f r o m t w o ­ d i m e n s i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o n reliefs a n d seal impressions. Persons wielding the crook in this position can b e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h r e e ­ d i m e n s i o n a l s c u l p t u r e as well. E x a m p l e s are small m i n i a t u r e figurines f r o m the 14t h/13t h

centuries representing a triad of g o d s (fig. 24).71

Also small gold figurines of a g o d (ca 1400/1200 BC) d i d p e r h a p s carry a crook p o i n t i n g back a n d d o w n w a r d s , the curve of which, however, is n o w lost.72

N o t so well attested is the crook carried w i t h its curve p o i n t i n g d o w n a n d f o r w a r d . O n a stele f r o m D a r e n d e / M a l a t y a f r o m about the 11th or 10th

Fig. 25. Stele from Darende/Malatya: The deities Hepat and Sarruma with crooks (?) pointing downwards in front of their body (Hawkins 2000b, pi. 146).

m as

m

Fig. 26. The tutelary god of the countryside with the curved stick of the falconer (ca 14"'/13th centuries BC) (Borker-Klahn 1982, fig. 305).

century BC, the g o d d e s s H e p a t is s h o w n sitting o n a throne, w i t h a crook (?) pointing d o w n a n d f o r w a r d . Behind her the g o d Sarruma is depicted s t a n d i n g on a lion a n d carrying a curved staff (?) in t h e s a m e way. A d e c e a s e d a n d d e i f i e d king, s t a n d i n g on a lion, p e r f o r m s a libation. The k i n g does n o t wield a crook, b u t rather a h a m m e r or d o u b l e axe (fig. 25).73

The curved stick as tool of the falconer

To b e distinguished f r o m the long crook u s e d in cultic context is a short c u r v e d stick u s e d for fal­

conry.7 4 It is c a r r i e d b y h u m a n f a l c o n e r s a n d , moreover, it is one of the characteristic e m b l e m s w i e l d e d by the g o d on the stag, the tutelary g o d of the countryside (fig. 26).75 This short staff of the

falconer is carried together w i t h the h a w k a n d / o r a killed hare. It is already attested on Anatolian seals f r o m the time of the O l d A s s y r i a n t r a d i n g colonies in the first half of the 2n d millennium BC.76

There are several a t t e s t a t i o n s for t h e c u r v e d staff held in the falconer's outstretched a r m u p ­ right w i t h its curve pointing forward.7 7 It can also be carried over the shoulder, the curve pointing backward.7 8 Interesting is a seal impression depict­

ing the g o d on the stag s w i n g i n g the raised short crook b e h i n d his h e a d as if p r e p a r i n g to h u r l it at a victim.7 9 Remarkable is a gold foil overlay of a figurine of the tutelary g o d of the countryside, the (perhaps w o o d e n ) core of w h i c h is lost. The deity held the curved staff pressed against the chest, its curve pointing sideways.8 0

A short curved stick u s e d for h u n t i n g can still b e f o u n d o n Late Hittite orthostats in the h a n d of h u m a n a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l beings.8 1 This stick dif­

fers significantly in f o r m f r o m the falconer's crook as attested in the 2n d millennium.

There is n o indication that also the curved staff of the falconer w a s called kalmus b y the Hittites.

Original crooks from archaeological excavations?

N o remains of a n original Hittite kalmus are extant in the archaeological r e c o r d , b u t c r o o k ­ s h a p e d objects f r o m earlier a n d later p e r i o d s h a v e b e e n c l a i m e d to b e its p r e d e c e s s o r s or d e s c e n d a n t s . S o m e f i n d s f r o m t h e richly f u r n i s h e d Early Bronze Age tombs exvacated at Alaca Hoyiik (end of 3r d m i l l e n n i u m BC) w e r e interpreted as com­

p o n e n t s of crooks, allegedly predecessors of the Hittite kalmus. 'Tomb K' contained curves of cop­

per a n d handles(?) of silver and gold. These objects h a v e b e e n interpreted as curves a n d h a n d l e s of crooks, the w o o d e n c o m p o n e n t s of w h i c h h a v e b e e n lost.82 There is, however, n o clear evidence that these objects belonged to crooks nor that these alleged crooks w e r e p r e d e c e s s o r s of the Hittite kalmus.

Very interesting yet a m b i g u o u s is the evidence f r o m a t u m u l u s at Gordion f r o m the post­Hittite Phrygian period. In 'Tumulus IE', a w o o d e n crook­

s h a p e d object w a s discovered, w h i c h w a s b y its e x c a v a t o r s t e n t a t i v e l y c o n n e c t e d to t h e Hittite kalmus (fig. 27).83

Preliminary conclusion: The curved staff in the Ancient Near East

The Hittite kalmus has been considered sometimes in scholarly literature to h a v e b e e n the m o d e l for t h e E t r u s c a n lituus.8i It is q u i t e e v i d e n t t h a t in

Sceptres, Cannes, Batons recourbes, Crosses. «Lituus».

Dates Chiusi et territoire Hors de Chiusi

Fig. 27. The wooden crook-shaped object from 'Tumulus III'at Gordion (Korte/Korte 1904, 53 fig. 14).

Anatolia the use of the kalmus d i d n o t e n d w i t h the decline of the Hittite empire shortly after 1200 BC. A s w e h a v e seen, it is still attested in the Neo- Hittite state of Malatya in the ll't h/10t h centuries BC. If the c r o o k - s h a p e d object f r o m G o r d i o n is really a d e s c e n d a n t of the Hittite kalmus, it w o u l d h a v e survived in Anatolia even longer.

O n the o t h e r h a n d w e s h o u l d k e e p in m i n d that the c u r v e d staff u s e d in ritual context is well attested also in Mesopotamia still in the 1st millen­

n i u m BC, so there m a y h a v e b e e n other possible w a y s of contact b e t w e e n east a n d west.

THE CLASSICAL WORLD

In Greece, staffs with a curved u p p e r e n d are doc­

u m e n t e d in various uses. The staff o n w h i c h Attic citizens l e a n e d ­ w e will c o m e b a c k to it ­, t h e lagobolon,85 a n d also ­ s o m e w h a t f u r t h e r afield ­ a staff w h i c h , in depictions, is similar to a s h e p ­ h e r d ' s crook, b u t in the original w a s p r o b a b l y a stick t h i c k e n e d b e l o w for ball­playing.8 6 T h e r e w e r e certainly also simple h e r d s m e n ' s staffs, b u t they are seldom depicted; the staff o n w h i c h p e d ­ agogues o n South Italian vases often lean is prob­

ably derived f r o m them.8 7 C u r v e d staffs are, h o w ­ ever, n o t k n o w n as r i t u a l i n s t r u m e n t s n o r as sceptres.8 8 Only Z e u s is sometimes depicted w i t h a c u r v e d staff, p r o b a b l y in r e f e r e n c e to t h e Babylonian g o d M a r d u k , to w h o s e attributes the c u r v e d staff belonged. Here, there are, however, surprising differences: O n Attic vases of the mid­

6t h century,8 9 a n d in the frieze of the H e r o o n of Gjolbaschi­Trysa,9 0 Z e u s h o l d s a staff w h i c h re­

sembles a walking­stick; in three Archaic bronze statuettes,9 1 o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a shorter, v e r y tightly spirally­coiled i n s t r u m e n t is d e p i c t e d , w h i c h b e t t e r c o r r e s p o n d s to the R o m a n lituus.

P r e l i m i n a r y stages for this f o r m are lacking to date; b u t it w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e b e e n invented just for the statuettes. In this case, it becomes a p p a r ­ ent h o w f r a g m e n t a r y our find record is.

In Italy, o n the other h a n d , the R o m a n a u g u r ' s staff is o n e of the b e s t ­ k n o w n R o m a n r i t u a l

VII°me Siecle

580

560

530

500

480

460

JBuccneto MUAIO

(=&

* QiUnto FA.ofie.ntim ' Caote

Rome LapXi N-ajeA

'/eJULvOU

TaAqiLinia. j j \

lioila. etc Fane

Fig. 28. Etruscan sceptres and crooks (r-shaped, l a g o ­ bolon'-type and lituus; after Jannot 1993, Fig. 14).

instruments.9 2 While it basically retained its f o r m through the centuries, a n u m b e r of types of curved staff h a v e b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s in Etruscan representations.

Jean­Rene Jannot has already p r o p o s e d a clas­

sification in t h r e e types,9 3 w h i c h I f o l l o w here, w i t h m i n o r differences (fig. 28).

The 'r-shaped' type

One of these staffs could easily also have been used as a h e r d s m e n ' s crook. Jannot9 4 d e s i g n a t e s this type as 'r­shaped', because its u p p e r e n d looks like a small V . This type can best b e recognized o n a statuette f r o m Isola di Fano (fig. 29)95 w h i c h cer­

tainly depicts n o herdsman, as the elegantly­draped cloak a n d the pointed shoes indicate. Whether one identifies h i m as a priest or rather as a dignitary d e p e n d s o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of h i s h e a d g e a r a n d , above all, of his staff. The latter is normally d e s i g n a t e d as a lituus, w h i c h in Etruria is s u p ­ p o s e d to be a n insigne 'del potere politico­religi­

o s o ' (Cristofani 1985, 268). Doubtlessly, however, this staff is n o t t h e u s u a l , m o r e or less tightly w o u n d lituus, b u t still preserves the original f o r m of a certain herdsman's­staff type, a n d is only a bit too short for practical use. It n e e d n o t necessarily h a v e b e e n i m p o r t e d f r o m another culture, b u t can also h a v e b e e n developed in Etruria; as Francesco Roncalli h a s s h o w n , e v e n h e r d s m e n ' s c l o t h i n g h a d been a d a p t e d for priests.9 6 In depictions, this

•u

I

Fig. 29. Bronze statuette from Isold di Fano. After Cristofani 1985 pi. 154 fig. 44.

t y p e of staff can scarcely b e distinguished f r o m a walking-stick of the s a m e t y p e as that of Attic cit­

izens9 7 ­ a l t h o u g h t h e c u r v e at t h e u p p e r e n d w o u l d h a v e to b e less p r o n o u n c e d t h a n that of the statuette f r o m Isola di Fano. O n this statuette, it is obvious that the staff is n o t suited for being u s e d as a s u p p o r t in s t a n d i n g or w a l k i n g , a n d also t h e small, spherical e l e m e n t c r o w n i n g t h e straight p a r t of the staff w o u l d h a v e b e e n quite inconvenient for this p u r p o s e . But o n reliefs f r o m Chiusi,9 8 a t y p e of cane similar to t h e Attic o n e m i g h t b e m e a n t ­ which, in one case, is being car­

ried b y a servant, w h o s e master w a n t s to h a v e his h a n d s free, in order to b e able to act freely as a spectator at a race.99 This sort of staff, the p u r p o s e of w h i c h is rather convenience t h a n cult, is pre­

s u m a b l y n o insigne of rank, b u t nevertheless al­

l u d e s ­ as does the Attic citizen's walking­stick ­ to a certain societal position. Slaves a n d m a n u a l l a b o u r e r s d i d n o t allow t h e m s e l v e s this sort of convenience. It cannot b e excluded that a partic­

ular f u n c t i o n is signalled, too, w i t h this t y p e of staff ­ p e r h a p s there w e r e staffs in certain colours, as Aristotle (Ath. Pol. 65) h a s d o c u m e n t e d it, for e x a m p l e , for Attic j u d g e s , f o r w h o m a certain colour signalled the membership of a specific court.

The w e l l ­ k n o w n scene o n the base in Palermo1 0 0

could s p e a k in f a v o u r of this interpretation, o n

w h i c h m e n w i t h this staff sit o n a platform, before w h i c h games take place. It is, however, only prob­

able, a n d n o t quite certain, that all of the staffs there are really of the 'r­type'; b u t the m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e staffs are h e l d , a b o v e , at t h e ' g r i p ' , speaks strongly for the interpretation as r­shaped staffs.1 0 1 The m e n could h a v e b e e n in charge of the organization of the g a m e s or of the a w a r d i n g of prizes; obviously, however, the ' r ­ s h a p e d ' staff in Chiusi is n o insigne of priests or of h i g h digni­

taries. Jannot h a s observed that it, in general, is n o t depicted together w i t h the sella curulis;102 b u t there are exceptions (fig. 30).103 His a s s u m p t i o n that this is n o t merely formal, b u t also functional, s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r to t h e Attic citizen's staff, namely, a sign of m e m b e r s h i p of a certain social class w h i c h b e g a n to p l a y a political role at the time the relief w a s made,1 0 4 is very appealing. The statuette f r o m Isola di Fano does not fit this inter­

pretation. There, too, t h e staff characterizes the p e r s o n , b u t p r o b a b l y scarcely as a m e m b e r of a citizenry or class. In spite of its similarity, the staff f r o m Isola di Fano h a s to b e separated f r o m the Chiusine staffs.

,'i •

The 'lagobolon'­fi/pe

Another type, which is slightly curved at its u p p e r e n d a n d strongly thickened, resembles the Graeco­

R o m a n lagobolon,105 a n d is also u s e d similarly.106 It is obviously u s e d not only for hunting, b u t also as a sign of a life­long or t e m p o r a r y office. O n a cip- pus f r o m C h i u s i , s e v e r a l m e n sitting o n sellae curules, probably officials therefore, have raised or even s h o u l d e r e d this type of staff (fig. 31).W7 The best k n o w n of these staffs, in the Tomba degli A u ­ guri,108 identifies its bearer obviously as a referee, or m o r e exactly, as Thuillier explains, as the orga­

nizer of the g a m e s (agonothetes).109 His stick m a y not h a v e b e e n u s e f u l for h u n t i n g , because it has b e e n p r o v i d e d w i t h a decorative element o n its front end; presumably, the w o o d h a d b e e n coated w i t h metal foil, in the m i d d l e of w h i c h a black dot can b e seen.

Simply curved litui

W h e n the thickening of the 'lagobolon-siicks' is not quite as strong as on the examples just mentioned, t h e y a p p r o x i m a t e in their f o r m a n o r m a l herds­

m a n ' s staff, w h i c h can b e u s e d as a s u p p o r t , or to catch animals. In the case of a very large radius of the curve, like that on a cippus f r a g m e n t in Flor­

ence,110 the 'lagobolon''­type will probably b e meant.

A w h o l e series of staffs w i t h a simple, n o t spiral

TV-

I t II

mi

m

r- m

\ I y

Fig. 30. Fragment of a chiusine relief base, Chiusi, Mus. Naz. 2284. After Jannot 1993 pi. 1 below.

m

OL

V

Fig. 32. Chiusine relief base, Palermo, Mus. Arch.

Reg. 8382. After Jannot 1993, pi. 1 above.

curve - basically, the majority of the staffs in de­

pictions ­ can, h o w e v e r , neither b e classified as the 'lagobolon'-type nor as the spirally­coiled lituus with absolute certainty.111 For them, the Latin n a m e pedum is mostly u s e d ­ w h e t h e r correctly or not, cannot be discussed here.112 Jannot h a s s u m m a ­

r i z e d all of t h e m , the staffs o n the friezes w i t h scenes of a n assembly f r o m M u r l o (fig. 32)m a n d Velletri (fig. 33),114 the n u m e r o u s Late Archaic pro­

cession friezes in Etruria a n d Latium,115 the Fiesole cippi a n d stelae,116 the t r i p o d 'Loeb',1 1 7 o n a vase b y the A m p h i a r a o s Painter1 1 8 a n d several other monuments1 1 9 together with the 'lagobolon''­type as derivations of h e r d s m e n ' s staffs w h i c h are to b e attributed to a n archaic, agrarian society a n d h a d not been depicted and probably also not been used since a b o u t 500. H e sets t h e m off decidedly f r o m the spirally­coiled lituus. Thuillier, o n the other h a n d , includes the 'lagobolon''­type as well in the group of staffs w h i c h h a d a religious function, a n d p o i n t s to the sacred character of games.1 2 0 H o w strongly the interpretation of m a n y staffs d e p e n d s o n the respective classification s c h e m e is illus­

trated, for instance, b y the fact that the staffs on the base 8385 in Palermo (see n. 100) are classified b y Jannot as.'r­shaped' a n d b y Thuillier as lituus- pedum, a n d the scenes are then interpreted accord­

ingly.

Jannots distinction in spirally­coiled litui on the one h a n d a n d non­religiously connotated staffs on the other m a y b e s u p p o r t e d b y the fact that, on the Late Archaic terracotta friezes w i t h assemblies or processions, t w o t y p e s actually occur: a spi­

ralled lituus (fig. 34)121 a n d a simple curved staff, w h i c h often h a s a r o u n d o r n a m e n t at its e n d (see n. 115). The latter is very common, a n d is, without d o u b t , a sign of rank. Precisely the r o u n d orna­

ment, however, connects it w i t h actual litui, like the one f r o m St. Ilario d'Enza (fig. 35),112 on w h i c h the i n n e r m o s t v o l u t e is decorated w i t h a bright d o t (not visible in t h e d r a w i n g fig. 35); further, s o m e of the staffs in the depictions as well are, in fact, s o m e w h a t m o r e tightly coiled t h a n the grip of a walking­stick, a n d it m a y h a r d l y b e possible to d r a w a b o u n d a r y line b e y o n d w h i c h the curve is p r o n o u n c e d e n o u g h for a d e t e r m i n a t i o n as a lituus. Also the only certainly ritually u s e d staffs, on the r o u n d base f r o m Perugia (fig. 36),123 h a v e n o complete spirals. Both of the real litui124 pre­

served, on the other hand, have pronounced spirals, w h i c h leads to the suspicion that one sometimes simplified s o m e w h a t in small­format depictions.

In general, it r e m a i n s to b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t it w o u l d h a r d l y b e possible to distinguish exactly spiral­litui f r o m simply curved litui, for w h i c h rea­

son they will b e discussed together in the follow­

ing. It is definitely possible that, in the course of time ­ p e r h a p s also only in certain regions ­ a dif­

f e r e n t i a t i o n in f o r m a n d u s e d e v e l o p e d , as t h e e x a m p l e of the terracotta frieze suggests. But this distinction does n o t lend itself to generalization.