The relationship between stress and life satisfaction of Korean University students: mediational effects of positive affect and self‑compassion

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-021-09676-y

The relationship between stress and life satisfaction of Korean University students: mediational effects of positive affect and self‑compassion

Hyojin Cho¹ · Sung‑Kyung Yoo² · Chan Jeong Park³

Received: 7 September 2020 / Revised: 26 January 2021 / Accepted: 27 January 2021 / Published online: 17 February 2021

Abstract

The present study aimed to examine the mediational effects of self-compassion and positive affect in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction of South Korean university students. Questionnaires regarding stress, self-compassion, positive affect, and life satisfaction were distributed to 1,087 university students. Structural equation modeling was conducted to confirm the direct and indirect paths between each variable as regards life satisfaction and gender differences. The main results of this study can be summarized as follows. First, the results showed that the partial mediational model best fit the data, and that positive affect and self-compassion had significant partial mediational effects. Second, positive affect and self-compassion both mediated the relationship between university students’ stress and life satisfaction. Third, the partial mediational model fit the data well for both male and female students, although gender differences were found in certain paths. The present study is significant in that it provides empirical evidence for the importance of self-compassion and positive affect in interventions for highly stressed university students. The implications and limitations of the present study were also discussed.

Keywords Stress · Positive affect · Self-compassion · Gender differences · Korean · University students

In society nowadays, university students experience significant psychological pressure from competition and the resulting problems of adjustment. The university years are the bridge between adolescence and adulthood, a specific period known as emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood is characterized by instability, exploration of the self, and a sense of being in-between (Arnett 2004). As they take their first step into adulthood, university students explore their possibilities, set goals, and make decisions to prepare for their lives as adults (Arnett 2004). In the gap between school and the workplace, they are in an endless search for limited opportunities and come up against a lot of competition. In

addition, with a greater ability for complex thinking (Labou- vie-Vief 1980; Sinnott 1989), they suffer due to issues such as becoming independent from their parents, deciding on academic and career paths, and resolving conflicts related to their value systems and identity, as well as other more external issues such as changing homes, becoming finan- cially independent, and dealing with relationship problems.

South Korean university students can experience a great deal of stress during this transitional period. Korean students’ identity development is often delayed as a result of the huge amount of study they need to do in preparation for university entrance exams during their secondary school years (Lee 2017). In Korean society where the patriarchal Confucian culture persists, students are likely to have a pas- sive attitude to making life decisions. For example, many of them feel compelled to select both a university and their major based on their parents’ recommendations. Therefore, the abrupt onset of freedom and responsibility in university can add to their stress. Furthermore, the current unem- ployment crisis amplifies intense competition and anxiety about the future. A study has found that problems relating to employment and finances, as well as unhappiness about the way society places an emphasis on educational background

* Sung-Kyung Yoo skyoo@ewha.ac.kr

1 Graduate School of Education, Sungshin Womans University, Seoul, South Korea

2 Department of Psychology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea

3 Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA

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and external qualifications, increase the stress of university students (Lee and Park 2012). As many Korean students start university without having had sufficient opportunities during adolescence to seriously consider their abilities, interests, and aptitudes, which are all closely related to identity development, they can experience a lot of frustration and conflicts as regards career issues and adjustment to university life (Lee and Park 2012). It has been reported that 58.4% of the stress experienced by Korean young adults in their 20 s occurs during their college years (Statistics Korea 2016).

In addition, one piece of research revealed that 53.7% of university students experienced significant levels of stress, and that indecision over their career path was the most common type of stressor (Kim et al. 2012). As we can see, students are experiencing career-related stressors such as a difficult preparatory process for employment, a mismatch between their academic majors and personal interests, and the pressure to find a job that meets their parents’ expecta- tions (Son and Kim 2017). Thus, stress is a factor that can have a negative impact on university students’ life satisfaction. Stress has a negative influence on physical and psychological health and is related to psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety (Brown et al. 1997). In Korea, university students’ excessive levels of stress were found to contribute to their emotional problems. These were characterized by worry, feeling disheartened, a sense of helplessness and worthlessness, a decrease in self-confidence and academic performance, and problems of adjusting to university life (Kim 2011). These factors are especially important from a clinical perspective, as the university years mark a period of increased rates of psychological disorders, such as major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder (Cicchetti and Rogosch 1996; Grimes and Walker 1994; Trull 2001).

Being successful in overcoming new challenges in emerging adulthood is essential to psychological health. If university students can draw on their own internal resources, the impact on their life satisfaction will be much less in stressful situations. However, if they have inadequate personal resources, they may suffer from serious stress and be subject to instability. Yoo, Lee, and Cho (2010) argued the importance of variables that can have a significant impact on the relationship between stress and psychological symptoms. Some of the concepts that have been examined as mediators in the relationship between university students’

stress and subjective well-being are ego resilience (Kang 2012; Han 2007; Lee 2012), gratitude (Kang 2012), self- esteem (Gore et al. 1993), self-control (Finkenauer et al.

2005), social and emotional support (Cho 2003), intrusive thoughts (Han and Park 2003), and negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, frustration, and helplessness (Yoon and Jeong 1999). Although various studies on the mediators between stress and life satisfaction have been conducted,

only a few studies have examined self-compassion in terms of the relationship between stress and life satisfaction (Kim 2019; Yoon and Yoo 2013). Some inconsistent findings relating to the mediating effect of self-compassion have been reported. For example, Lee and Bang (2008) studied the relationship between stress, mindfulness, self-compassion, and well-being in adult women, but there was no evidence of the mediating effect of self-compassion. Furthermore, the mediating effect of self-compassion in relation to stress and well-being differed depending on age group. While self-compassion was shown to have partial mediation in an adult sample (Cho 2010; Kim 2012a, b; MacBeth and Gumley 2012; Park 2013), a sample of elementary school students reported a full mediation effect (Shim 2014). How- ever, since self-compassion contributes to the reduction of negative emotions and helps with the acceptance of pain (Leary et al. 2007), it can be key in the link between stress and life satisfaction. In addition, although self-compassion has been found to be closely related to life satisfaction (Neff et al. 2007; Neff and Vonk 2009), due to the fact that it is a relatively new concept, more empirical research is needed to understand its role as a mediator (Lee and Yang 2018).

Positive affect helps people cope with stress and can contribute to life satisfaction. According to Frankl (1963), positive affect is required to have a sense of life satisfaction in the midst of adverse events. Past research has tended to focus on the negative and pathological states that result from stressful conditions. However, a more recent model has emphasized the importance of positive affect in psycho- therapy (Seligman 2002). Positive affect is more than simply experiencing pleasant emotions; it enriches quality of life by contributing to well-being, health, and life satisfaction (Burns et al. 2008). Experiencing positive affect increases life satisfaction (Lee and Lee 2005; Yoon 2008) and aug- ments psychological resources by helping people to actively pursue their life goals (Elliot and Thrash 2002). In this con- text, Tugade and Fredrickson (2004) considered positive affect as a mediating variable of stress and life satisfaction.

Self-compassion is closely related to positive affect (Lee and Lee 2018). People with high levels of self-compassion tend to experience high positive affect (Kim and Lee 2015).

In addition, positive affect is found to be a more effective mediating variable than cognitive flexibility as regards the link between self-compassion and stress (Lee and Cho 2016). Furthermore, recent studies have also shown that positive affect can lead to greater life satisfaction and cognitive flexibility (Fredrickson and Joiner 2002). According to Fredrickson’s “broaden and build theory,” positive affect facilitates the meaning-making of given stimuli and the identification of new behavioral alternatives/coping meas- ures by arousing changes in cognitive activation and then broadening the cognitive domain. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) reported that those who experienced positive affect

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tended to show more attention to the given stimuli and had a flexible and creative thinking style. This broadening of positive affect could help people to feel more satisfied with their lives and could help them to manage in stressful situations by facilitating coping strategies, which are effective for problem-solving (Burns et al. 2008; Fredrickson and Joiner 2002). In order to overcome stress, individuals need to prac- tice self-acceptance without blaming themselves for their pain and failures. The broadening of cognitive flexibility can help this coping process. Once positive affect is experienced, people can start to see the bigger picture and feel greater self-compassion, which can lead to life satisfaction.

Although there are many investigations into the relationship between self-compassion and mental health, not many studies have identified the direct path to positive affect. In addition, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the prior relationship between positive affect and self-compassion.

In other words, many studies show that self-compassion is related to positive well-being by reducing negative emotions (Moon and Choi 2015; Lee and Lee 2018), but other studies argue that positive affect helps with self-compassion by expanding cognitive flexibility (Kim and Lee 2015). In this study, we intend to acquire empirical evidence based on Fredrickson’s theory that positive emotions can affect self-compassion.

In summary, the present study selected two mediators, positive affect and self-compassion, based on the following reasons. First, positive affect is related to the processes of soothing and calming, and thus plays a mediational role in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction. Sec- ond, positive affect broadens the cognitive process, and helps people to expand their perceptions such as self-compassion.

Third, self-compassion includes factors such as positive reappraisal, which adjusts and balances the brain (Gilbert 2009) and can be developed throughout life by learning and training. Fourth, by simultaneously examining the mediating roles of positive affect and self-compassion in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction, a more comprehensive understanding of these variables can be achieved. The study aims to investigate how these mediators influence the life satisfaction of college students.

Self‑compassion, stress, and life satisfaction

Self-compassion is an important protective factor against stress (Neff 2003a). Neff defined self-compassion as “being open to and moved by one’s own suffering, experiencing feelings of caring and kindness toward oneself, taking an understanding, nonjudgmental attitude toward one’s inad- equacies and failures, and recognizing that one’s experience is part of the common human experience” (Neff 2003a). It is characterized by not running away from pain but facing

it in an open-minded way and alleviating it through being kind to oneself. Self-compassion is conceptually different from self-pity or self-centeredness. It is distinctive in that it encourages people not to see negative events as unique to themselves, but as a shared experience, something that all people feel, which also helps them to understand others’ suffering in a nonjudgmental way. In other words, self- compassionate people are forgiving of their failures or flaws.

They accept themselves and others as imperfect beings and feel connected to others (Neff 2003a).

Many studies have found that self-compassion can positively contribute to psychological health in stressful situations (Bennett-Goleman 2001; Brach 2003). Also, self- compassion promotes resilience by mediating individuals’

responses to a situation (Leary et al. 2007). Yoo et al. (2010) found that self-compassion has a greater effect on the relationship between stress and depression when levels of stress are high. Similarly, Neff (2003a) found that self-compassion can help to lower anxiety in threatening situations. More specifically, self-compassion lowers levels of defensive- ness which can lead to more adaptive coping strategies and a decrease in negative affect (Leary et al. 2007; Neff et al. 2007). Additionally, it serves as an adaptive resource (Bishop et al. 2004), helps with psychopathology, is related to positive psychological functioning (Neff et al. 2007), promotes posttraumatic recovery and growth, and lowers the intensity of stress (Foa and Kozak 1986).

Self-compassion also makes important contributions to life satisfaction (Neff et al. 2007; Neely et al. 2009). Stud- ies on self-compassion have shown that it has positive correlations with life satisfaction, social connectedness, self-acceptance, psychological well-being, happiness, and positive affect (Adams and Leary 2007; Cho 2010; Kim et al.

2008; Neff 2003a, b; Neff et al. 2007). Also, people who are less self-compassionate are more likely to suffer from anxiety, depression, shame, fear of failure, self-criticism, negative thinking, perfectionism, and eating disorders (Barnard and Curry 2011; Martin et al. 2011; Mills et al. 2007; Neff et al. 2007; Wei et al. 2011; Williams et al. 2008). Previous research among adults has found associations between self- compassion and life satisfaction (Neff 2003b). Self-compassion has a strong positive correlation with life satisfaction (Neff 2003b), and a lower level of self-compassion can lead to greater vulnerability to psychological symptoms (Lee and Bang 2008).

Several studies have explored the mediational role of self- compassion. In Korea, Lee and Bang (2008) found that stress and self-compassion were negatively correlated, and that they both had independent effects on subjective well-being.

Also, Kim (2012a, b) found a negative correlation between self-compassion and stress and showed a partial mediational effect of self-compassion in the link between stress and subjective well-being. In one study, self-compassion partially

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mediated the relationship between stress and subjective satisfaction (Kim 2012a, b) and well-being (Gilbert and Iron 2005; Neff et al. 2007). In another study, adult attachment anxiety predicted posttraumatic stress through self-compassion (Ha 2013). Self-compassion has been found to have a significant impact on psychological functioning and well- being even after controls for life stress and social support (Yoo et al. 2010).

Positive affect, stress, and life satisfaction

Positive affect has been suggested as an important part of the coping process in stressful situations (Gilbert and Iron 2005;

Neff et al. 2007). Until recently, stress-related research has mainly focused on negative affect. Although some researchers view positive affect as the opposite of negative affect, recent studies suggest that they are independent constructs, and that positive affect needs to be understood separately to negative affect (Diener et al. 1985; Fredrickson 2000;

Schimmack 2008). While negative affect is related to nar- row-minded thoughts, positive affect broadens the spec- trum of cognition and behaviors, which in turn increases the ability to endure hardship (Fredrickson 2000). Accord- ing to Fredrickson’s (2000) broaden and build theory, positive affect broadens the cognitive processes, helping people make meaningful connections among the given stimuli and consider a wider range of behavioral alternatives or coping methods. Such cognitive activation promotes effective coping behaviors for problem-solving (Fredrickson et al. 2000).

Positive affect also helps with the acceptance of new experiences (Kahn and Isen 1993) and expands one’s perception and perspective (Fredrickson and Branigan 2005; Wadlinger and Isaacowitz 2006). Individuals who experience positive affect possess a wider range of cognitive and behavioral repertoires. More specifically, they actively accumulate information in a more open-minded manner (Estrada et al.

1994), are consistent and creative (Isen et al. 1987), and do not remain rigid in a cognitive way (Isen and Daubman 1984). In summary, positive affect broadens one’s awareness in stressful situations, increases one’s ability to overcome difficulties, and contributes to life satisfaction in the face of psychological distress. Although positive affect has a partial overlap with life satisfaction, it is a distinct construct (Arthaud-Day et al. 2005; Lucas et al. 1996). Positive affect can both increase life satisfaction and decrease depression (Fredrickson et al. 2008), and a meta-analysis on positive affect has found that it promotes psychological health, successful life outcomes (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005), and purpose in life (Fredrickson et al. 2003; King et al. 2006).

Based on the previous literature, positive affect can be expected to function as a mediating variable between stress and life satisfaction. However, more empirical research

is needed to better understand this link. In this study, the mediating role of positive affect in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction will be examined in tandem with self-compassion.

Positive affect and self‑compassion

The Dalai Lama (2003) described self-compassion as the ability to take care of well-being in connection with affect.

Considering that affect plays an important role in cognitive judgments (Carver and Scheier 1990; Isen 1987), positive affect could be assumed to not only influence life satisfaction but also cognitive factors like self-compassion. When individuals experience positive affect, they have a broader cognitive capacity, which allows them to make mental connections more easily (Fredrickson et al. 2008). Such cognitive broadening can also help people to avoid becoming fix- ated on current stressors, to consider various interpretations of a given situation, and to develop self-compassion (Kim and Lee 2015). A previous study showed that when participants engaged in an intervention that made themselves or others experience positive affect, they showed an increase in mindfulness and self-compassion (Fredrickson et al. 2008;

Whang and Cho 2011). Lee and Lee (2018) also showed that positive affect helped people to extend their self-compassion to being compassionate to others. Other studies have also showed the mediating effects of positive effect on the relation between resilience and job stress (Gloria et al. 2013). In Korean literature, although there are several studies on the relationship between positive emotions and self-compassion, little research has been done to examine these two variables as mediators. This study aims to test whether positive affect would not only have a direct effect on life satisfaction but also an indirect effect through self-compassion.

Gender differences in stress,

self‑compassion, and positive affect

Gender differences in experiencing stress have been consistently reported. Some studies claim that women experience greater negative affect and more unpleasant symptoms than men (Eaton and Kessler 1981; Frerichs et al. 1981; Levitt and Lubin 1975; Murrell et al. 1983). Likewise, there have been consistent reports of gender differences in relation to university students’ stress levels (Kim 2011). In Korea, female students reported experiencing greater stress than male students in relation to their future and career, their academic studies, and their values (Hwang 1994; Kim 2011;

Shin and Chang 2003). According to Kim (2011), women experience greater stress than men due to their lower expec- tations as regards career achievements.

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Such differences may be attributable to the evident gender difference in coping mechanisms against stress. While men are more competitive, task-oriented, and aggressive in problem-solving, women have a more prosocial, assertive, and empathetic coping style (Hobfall et al. 1994). These findings may help to explain why Korean female students consistently report greater career- and academic-related stress in comparison to male students (Kong and Kang 2012;

Lee et al. 1998). Nevertheless, gender has been found to contribute little in the way of explanation as regards life satisfaction. Moreover, as for positive affect, previous studies on gender difference have showed inconsistent findings.

Some reported no gender difference (Wood et al. 1989;

Zuckerman et al. 2017), and some reported that women in average have a higher level of positive affect (Fujita et al.

1991). Meanwhile, research on gender differences as regards self-compassion, which can be considered a coping mecha- nism against stress, shows mixed findings. In several studies, women showed lower levels of self-compassion than men (Barnard and Curry 2011; Neff and Vonk 2009; Raes 2010). Muris and colleagues (2019) found that adolescent girls scored higher than adolescent boys on uncompassion- ate self-responding subscales (i.e., self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification) and negative cognitive reactions to adversity (i.e., dramatizing, putting oneself down, and shame). A meta-analysis found a small gender difference (d = 0.18) in self-compassion, with women scoring lower than men (Yarnell et al. 2015). However, some other studies found no gender difference in self-compassion (Neff et al. 2005, 2007; Neff and Pommier 2012). Therefore, more research is needed to explore gender difference in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction, with self- compassion and positive affect as mediators.

Conceptual model of the study

The present study aims to investigate the mediational structural equation model with self-compassion and positive affect as mediators in the relationship between stress

and life satisfaction. To explore the effect of stress on life satisfaction, the research model and an alternative model were specified and compared (see Fig. 1). With empirical testing of the theoretical model, it is possible that more than one model may be suitable for the data. Therefore, the recommendation is to present one or more alternative models. Weston and Gore (2006) recommended that researchers present the proposed model as well as one or more theoretically plausible models in the test of the structural equation model. This is due to the fact that positing a fully mediated model has important implications that differ from those of a partially mediated model. There- fore, the authors presented the fully mediated model as an alternative, and the partial mediation model as a research prototype. The fit of the alternative model is compared with that of the proposed model. We evaluated significant improvements in model fit with a chi-square difference test and improvements in other fit indices (Weston and Gore 2006). In addition, gender differences were also explored.

The results of the study were expected to support the positive association between self-compassion and experiences of positive affect and life satisfaction of university students in stressful situations. The results were also expected to provide an empirical basis for interventions in academic settings, psychological counseling, and psychoeducation.

The specific hypotheses of the present study are as follows: (1) life stress will have a significant effect on life satisfaction through self-compassion; (2) life stress will have a significant effect on life satisfaction through positive affect; (3) positive affect and self-compassion will both mediate the relationship between university students’

stress and life satisfaction; and 4) gender difference will be observed in the mediational model. To confirm these hypotheses, a structural equation model of stress and life satisfaction, with positive affect and self-compassion as mediators, was tested, and multigroup analysis was conducted to investigate gender difference.

Fig. 1 The Research Model (Partial mediation model) and the Alternative Model (Com- plete mediation model). LSS life stress scale; PA positive affect;

SC self-compassion; LS life satisfaction

Note. LSS = life stress scale; PA = positive affect; SC = self-compassion; LS = life satisfaction.

LS PA

LSS

SC

LS PA

LSS

SC

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Methods

Participants and procedures

This study was approved by the research ethics com- mittee of our institution. The purpose of the study was explained to all participants and they then signed a written consent form. After receiving a comprehensive descrip- tion of the study, participants were told that they were free to withdraw at any time during the data collection.

The survey was conducted in a classroom and participants were given 15–20 min to complete the questionnaire. Par- ticipants were given several questionnaires: the life stress scale (LSS-CS; Jeon et al. 2000), the self-compassion scale (SCS; Neff 2003a, b), the positive affect schedule (PANAS; Watson et al. 1988), and the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS; Diener et al. 1985). After completion, participants received compensation according to the survey.

For the present study, 1,087 university students attending eight universities in South Korea were recruited. Among the participants, 606 were male (55.7%), 479 were female (44.1%) and 2 were unspecified (0.2%). The mean age was 21.30 years (SD = 2.39). A total of 241 participants were freshmen (22.2%), 372 were sophomores (34.2%), 236 were juniors (21.7%), 228 were seniors (21.0%), and 8 fell into the category of others (0.07%). The most common area of study was humanities (348; 32.0%), followed by social sciences (306; 28.2%), engineering (241; 22.2%), natural sciences (84; 7.7%), education (13; 1.2%), arts (19;

1.7%), and others and unspecified (64; 7.0%).

Instruments

Life stress scale for college students (LSS‑CS)

To assess the life stress of university students, the life stress scale for university students developed by Kim and Lee (2000) was used. The scale consists of four interper- sonal dimensions (friendship, intimate relationships, family relationships, and relationships with professors), and four current task dimensions (academic problems, financial problems, career problems, and value system problems). The items are rated on a four-point Likert scale.

In the present study, only current task dimensions were used. Such a decision was based on Kim and colleagues’

(2012) nationwide report on sources and characteristics of stress in Korean society, which found that financial problems such as employment, career, and tuition were major sources of stress among Korean university students, while personal problems such as those with family or romantic partners were rated as less important. In Jeon et al. (2000),

the internal consistency of the scale was 0.75 ~ 0.88, and in Lee and Park’s (2012) study, it was 0.80 ~ 0.88. In Kim’s (2012a, b) study, which only used current task dimensions, the internal consistency was 0.87, and in Lee’s (2007) study, it was 0.94. In the present study, the internal consistency of financial problems was 0.91, career problems was 0.89, value system problems was 0.86, and academic problems was 0.87. The internal consistency of the overall current task dimensions was 0.93.

Self‑compassion (SC)

Self-compassion was measured using the Korean version of Neff’s (2003a, b) Self-Compassion Scale (K-SCS), which has been translated and validated by Kim et al. (2008).

The scale consists of five items each in the categories of self-kindness and self-judgment, and four items each in the categories of common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. In total, there are 26 items and six factors, and each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale.

Although the six factors are distinct, they can be merged to form three dimensions: self-kindness versus self-judgment, common humanity versus isolation, and mindfulness versus over-identification (Neff 2003a, b). In Kim and colleagues’

(2008) study, the internal consistency of K-SCS ranged from 0.66 to 0.81. In the present study, the internal consistency of self-kindness versus self-judgment was 0.77, of common humanity versus isolation was 0.80, and of mindfulness versus over-identification was 0.77.

Positive affect (PA)

To assess positive affect, the Korean version of Wat- son et al.’s (1988) Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (K-PANAS), which has been translated and validated by Lee et al. (2003), was used. The measure consists of 10 items for negative affect and 10 items for positive affect. The present study used only the 10 items related to positive affect. Each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale, and the greater the total score, the greater the experience of positive affect. The internal consistency of positive affect items was 0.84 in a previous study (Lee et al. 2003), and in the present study, it was 0.86.

Life satisfaction (LS)

The Korean version of Diener et al.’s (1985) Satisfaction with Life Scale (K-SWLS), which has been translated and validated by Kim (2007), was used to assess life satisfaction. The scale comprises five items, which are rated on a seven-point Likert scale. The internal consistency was 0.87 in Diener and colleagues’ (1985) study, 0.84 in Kim’s study (2007), and 0.86 in the present study.

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Data analysis

The data were analyzed in the following order. First, prior to examining the hypothesis of the mediational model, the means, standard deviations, and correlations of variables used in the study were computed. Second, structural equation modeling was conducted to confirm the fit and paths of the proposed model. Structural equation modeling was chosen based on its ability to provide unbiased estimates of mediation effects (Cheung and Lau 2008) and the presence of latent constructs in the model. The validity of a structural equation model is determined by assessing the consistency between the research model and the actual covariance data and how fit the covariance structural model is for the assumption. We evaluated the goodness of fit for all models based on the results of a chi-square test, a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) of 0.05 or less, a com- parative fit index (CFI) of 0.9 or over, and a Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) of 0.9 or over, which determines how fit a model is in comparison with a null model in which no relationships are set between all variables of a model (Browne and Cudeck 1993). We employed maximum likelihood estima- tion to test our hypotheses. In addition, the item parceling technique was applied to all scales. Empirical justifications for parceling include increasing reliability, achieving nor- mality, reducing the idiosyncratic influence of individual items, simplifying interpretation, and obtaining a better model fit (Bandalos and Finney 2001). As item loadings for the life stress scale were not even, ranging from 0.51 to 0.82, three item parcels were made. Item parcels were also created for the positive affect scale, the life satisfaction scale, and the self-compassion scale to increase model conformity and lower the parameter predictor bias. The item parcels were constructed by conducting exploratory factor analysis with one factor model and grouping items so that the parcels carry similar loadings (Russell et al. 1998). Third, multigroup analysis was conducted to explore the gender effect in the mediational model, and each group’s mediational effect was separately examined. Mediation effects were estimated by bootstrap analyses as recommended by Shrout and Bolger (2002). Mplus 6.0 was used for structural equation modeling and multigroup analysis, while SPSS 19.0 was used for descriptive analysis and t-tests.

Results

Descriptive analysis

The means, standard deviations, and correlations of the variables were analyzed to examine the general trends of the variables (see Table 1). As can be seen, life stress is

significantly negatively correlated with positive affect, ^Table

1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations (N = 1,087) Correlations in the lower triangle are for men, and those in the upper triangle are for women * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 VariablesLife stressPositive affectSelf-compassionLife satisfaction Life stress1.00 − 0.20*** − 0.28***− 0.46*** Positive affect − 0.18***1.000.44***0.45*** Self-compassion − 0.08*0.37***1.000.47*** Life satisfaction − 0.41***0.48***0.39***1.00 M0.843.153.014.44 SD0.580.720.411.14

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self-compassion, and life satisfaction. Positive affect is significantly positively correlated with self-compassion and life satisfaction, and self-compassion is significantly positively correlated with life satisfaction.

Measurement model

The measurement model was tested to examine if the indicators appropriately represent the latent variables. In the measurement model, correlations among all latent variables were assumed. The results showed that the measurement model fit the data well, χ2 (df = 48, N = 1,087) = 180.084, CFI = 0.985, TLI = 0.975, and RMSEA = 0.050 (0.043–0.058). Also, the factor loadings for stress were 0.87 ~ 0.93; for life satisfaction, they were 0.77 ~ 0.88; for self-compassion, they were 0.75 ~ 0.84; for positive affect, they were 0.83 ~ 0.87; and all of them were significant at p < 0.001.

Structural Equation Model

To explore the effect of stress on life satisfaction, the research model and an alternative model were specified and compared (see Fig. 1). The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 2. The model fit of the partial mediational model was χ2 (df = 48, N = 1,087) = 180.084, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.985, TLI = 0.975, RMSEA = 0.050 (0.043–0.058), and that of the complete mediational model was χ2 (df = 50, N = 1,087) = 282.870, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.975, TLI = 0.961, RMSEA = 0.063 (0.055–0.070). As the two models were nested, the χ2 difference test was conducted. The result showed that the partial mediational model was better than the alternative model, △χ2 (df = 2, N = 1,087) = 102.786, p < 0.001.

Therefore, the research model (partial mediational model) was selected as the final model. Also, all paths in the final model were significant at p < 0.001 and the results of the analysis are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 2. Next, the bootstrap method by Shrout and Bolger (2002) was conducted to assess the indirect effects of positive affect and self-compassion. According to the validity test using the bootstrap method, one must first obtain a 95% confidence interval (CI) and interpret an indirect effect as statistically significant when this CI does not include “0”.

The validity tests using the bootstrap method are summarized in Table 4. According to the validity test, the indirect effect of positive affect was significant ( 𝛽 = − 0.091, p < 0.001) as

the CI did not include “0” at 95% bootstrap CI. And the indirect effect of self-compassion was significant ( 𝛽 = − 0.133, p < 0.001) as the CI did not include “0” at 95% bootstrap CI.

The dual mediation effect of positive affect and self-compassion was also significant ( 𝛽 = − 0.011, p < 0.05) as the CI did not include “0” at 95% bootstrap CI.

Table 2 Model Fit Indices for the Research Model and Alternative Model

Model χ2 df TLI CFI RMSEA (90%CI)

Research model (partial mediation)

180.084 48 0.975 0.985 0.050 (0.043–0.058)

Alternative model (complete mediation)

282.870 50 0.961 0.975 0.063 (0.055–0.070)

Table 3 Parameter Estimates for the Final Model (Partial mediational model)

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Parameter B S.E 𝛽

Life Stress → Positive affect − 0.092*** 0.014 − 0.219 Life Stress → Self-compas-

sion − 0.265*** 0.019 − 0.469 Positive affect → Self-compas-

sion 0.237*** 0.043 0.176

Positive affect → Life satisfaction 0.181*** 0.013 0.414 Self-compas-

sion → Life satisfaction 0.092*** 0.011 0.283 Life Stress → Life satisfaction − 0.044*** 0.006 − 0.241

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

LS PA

LSS

SC

PA1 PA2 PA3

SC1 SC2 SC3

L1

L2

L3

LS1

LS2

LS3

−.22***

−.24***

−.47*** .28***

.41***

.18***

Fig. 2 Standardized parameter estimates of the final structural equation model.. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

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Analysis of gender effect in stress, self‑compassion, positive affect, and life satisfaction

Gender differences in research variables

To examine the gender differences in the variables, the mean and standard deviations of each variable for males and females were calculated, and the t-test was conducted (see Table 5). In general, while women experienced significantly more stress, men reported significantly greater positive affect and self-compassion. However, there was no gender difference in life satisfaction.

Analysis of configural invariance

To investigate gender difference in model fit and param- eters, multigroup analysis was conducted. Multigroup analysis includes analyses for configural invariance, measurement invariance, and structural invariance. First, the model fit was analyzed by gender to check whether the base model was fit for both men and women. As shown in Table 6, the model was fit for both genders, and the model fit was better for men. Also, when the research model

and the alternative model were compared by gender, the research model, i.e., the partial mediational model, showed a better fit than the alternative model for both genders. All paths were significant for both genders (p < 0.001).

Analysis of measurement invariance

Next, measurement invariance was analyzed to investigate the gender difference in the measurement model. Analy- sis of measurement invariance tests whether measurement variables constitute the same latent variables in two groups, through comparing an unrestricted model and a model restricted in the number of factor coefficients. The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 7. The analysis of the degrees of freedom and χ² of both models showed that there was little change in the model fit, and that there was no significant difference between the base model and the measurement invariance model. Therefore, complete measurement invariance was confirmed (△χ² (d f = 8) = 11.429, p < 0.01, TLI = 0.971, CFI = 0.981, RMSEA = 0.038).

Table 4 Indirect Effects of the Final Structural Equation Model

Note. LSS = life stress scale; PA = positive affect; SC = self-compassion; LS = life satisfaction

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Path b 𝛽 95% CI

lower upper

LSS → PA → LS − 0.017*** − 0.091 − 0.024 − 0.010

LSS → SC → LS − 0.024*** − 0.133 − 0.035 − 0.015

LSS → PA → SC → LS − 0.002** − 0.011 − 0.004 − 0.001

Table 5 Characteristics of Research Variables According to Gender

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Variables men women t

M (SD) M (SD)

Life Stress 1.08 (0.71) 1.33 (0.76) − 5.53***

Positive affect 3.22 (0.71) 3.06 (0.74) 3.59***

Self-compassion 3.04 (0.40) 2.96 (0.44) 2.96*

Life Satisfaction 4.46 (1.12) 4.43 (1.18) 0.44

Table 6 Model Fit of Research Model and Alternative Model by Gender

Model χ² df TLI CFI RMSEA (90%CI)

Research model (total) 180.084 48 0.975 0.985 0.050 (0.043–0.058)

Research model (men) 111.250 48 0.978 0.986 0.047 (0.035–0.058)

Research model (women) 118.950 48 0.971 0.982 0.056 (0.043–0.068)

Alternative model (total) 282.870 50 0.961 0.975 0.063 (0.055–0.070)

Alternative model (men) 165.417 50 0.961 0.975 0.062 (0.051–0.072)

Alternative model (women) 159.200 50 0.957 0.972 0.068 (0.056–0.080)

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Analysis of structural invariance

As measurement invariance was confirmed, structural invariance was analyzed to investigate gender differences in causal paths among the variables (see Table 7). In the complete structural invariance model, all causal paths were restricted to have identical variance, and χ² was 290.370.

Compared to the complete measurement invariance model, its degree of freedom differed by 6, and χ² by 17.21. As such a difference was significant at 0.05 level, the assumption of complete structural invariance was not satisfied. There- fore, complete structural invariance was rejected, and partial structural invariance was tested. As △χ² was analyzed, between-group paths were restricted one by one. The result showed that when the path from stress to self-compassion was unrestricted, partial structural invariance was satisfied, and this model was selected as the final structural invariance.

In other words, there was a significant difference between men and women in the path from stress to self-compassion.

The gender differences in this model are summarized in Table 8 and Fig. 3.

Mediational analysis of each group

The bootstrap method was conducted to examine the mediational effect in each group. As shown in Table 9, all paths were significant for both men and women. For males, the indirect effect of positive affect ( 𝛽 = − 0.085, p < 0.01), self- compassion ( 𝛽 = − 0.095, p < 0.001), and positive affect and self-compassion was significant ( 𝛽 = − 0.010, p < 0.05) as the CI did not include “0”. For women, the indirect effect of positive affect ( 𝛽 = − 0.087, p < 0.01), self-compassion ( 𝛽 = − 0.143, p < 0.001), and positive affect and self-com- passion was significant ( 𝛽 = − 0.009, p < 0.05) as the CI did not include “0”.

Discussion

The present study examined the mediational model with positive affect and self-compassion as mediators in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction, based on the survey data collected from 1,087 university students. Also, gender differences in each construct were explored. The main research findings are discussed below.

First, self-compassion was found to be a significant mediator in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction. This means that stress affects self-compassion, and changes in self-compassion can affect life satisfaction.

Baron and Kenny (1986) claims that the mediator provides clues to environmental interventions. In other words, in relation to life satisfaction, the confirmation of the mediation path of self-compassion means that even if there is a stressful event, life satisfaction can be maintained if self- compassion does not decrease. Because stress is inevita- ble, it is important to have self-compassion, an attribute that can be developed by education or counseling in order to maintain well-being in life. Such a finding corresponds with previous studies that found self-compassion to be an adaptive coping resource in the face of negative events (Bishop et al. 2004). For example, self-compassionate students did not avoid but coped with the negative experience of receiving low grades in mid-term exams (Neff et al. 2005). Additionally, they experienced less negative affect and engaged in less avoidance coping strategies (Neely et al. 2009). In a study of Korean university students, self-compassion helped students to cope with psychological symptoms more flexibly, especially if they were experiencing high levels of stress (Yoo et al. 2010).

Self-compassion promotes more adaptive ways of coping and prevents negative coping strategies in stressful situations. This is due to the fact that self-compassion helps people to understand and accept their suffering as part of the larger human experience, instead of being self-critical, and thus, this allows them to hold a more balanced view of themselves and their situations. Neff (2004) has suggested that self-compassion alleviates suffering by helping people to distance themselves from their painful experiences. For this reason, having self-compassion appears to help reduce stress and improve life satisfaction. One of the reasons self-compassion is important for university students in stressful situations is because it is not an inherent or unchangeable trait, but a skill that can be acquired and developed through education and training (Mckay and Fanning 2000). Training to understand, accept, and forgive can develop self-compassion, which can then protect individuals from complex psychological distress and increase psychological well-being. Moreover, although self-compassion is primarily developed in the family environment and through relationships with parents, Gilbert and Procter

Table 7 Model Fit Indices of

Invariance Models by Gender χ² df TLI CFI RMSEA (90% CI)

Base model 230.208 96 0.975 0.984 0.036 (0.030–0.042)

Complete measurement invariance 241.637 104 0.976 0.984 0.035 (0.029–0.041) Complete structural invariance 258.847 110 0.975 0.983 0.035 (0.029–0.041) Partial structural invariance 242.942 109 0.978 0.984 0.034 (0.028–0.039)

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(2006) have argued that learning to become mindful is more effective than improving relationships with parents in terms of increasing self-compassion. In fact, many interventions and therapies, including Compassionate Mind Training, Gestalt two-chair dialog, Mindfulness- Based Stress Reduction and Mediation, Dialectical Behav- ior Therapy, and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, are being used to promote self-compassion (Barnard and Curry 2011).

Second, positive affect was also found to be an important mediator in the link between stress and life satisfaction. This means that if you can maintain positive affect in a stressful situation, you can obtain satisfaction in life. In other words, the stress event itself is important, but positive affect and self-compassion in the face of a given stress are more important. In previous studies, positive affect was shown to be an important contributor to psychological health (Pressman and Cohen 2005; Lyubomirsky et al. 2005), as it protects against the psychological distress caused by negative events (Goo 2012; Cho et al. 2012). Furthermore, it alleviates stress (Viney 1986; Wortman and Silver 1987), promotes various successful factors in life (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005), and can predict life satisfaction (Kang and Kim 2009). Isen and colleagues (1984, 1985) have suggested that positive affect decreases stress and promotes life satisfaction because it helps problem-solving through increasing creativ- ity and flexibility. In turn, this broadens perspective through expanding the range of attention and cognition (Fredrickson 1998).

Third, it was found that the dual mediating effect of positive affect and self-compassion was significant. This result supports previous research which says that positive affect correlates with self-compassion (Neff et al. 2007; Neff &

Vonk 2009) and can also increase self-compassion (Kim and Lee 2015; Whang and Cho 2011). In addition, positive affect and self-compassion can both have significant effects on life satisfaction in stressful situations. When positive affect was higher, it increased cognitive flexibility, so that self-compassion would have an effect on life satisfaction. According to Lee and Cho (2016), resilient people coped with stressful situations mostly by using positive affect rather than cognitive flexibility. Such results show the usefulness of positive affect in the fields of counseling or education. Generally, we mostly have to deal with negative affect in stressful situations. However, if you explore the client’s negative emotions through the counseling process, and also help them to pay attention to their positive emotions, the client will overcome difficulties and better accommodate the stresses in his or her life. As stress could hide positive affect by heightening negative affect, counselors and educators have an important role to play in helping the client to understand more about positive affect and how it is experienced in daily life.

Strengthening the experience of positive affect in one’s daily

Table 8 Structural Coefficient Estimates of the Final Model Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

PathMenWomen bS.E𝛽bS.E𝛽 Life Stress→Positive affect − 0.085***0.014 − 0.198 − 0.085***0.014 − 0.204 Life Stress→Self-compassion − 0.201***0.025 − 0.356 − 0.340***0.027 − 0.569 Positive affect→Self-compas- sion0.242***0.0430.1840.242***0.0430.169 Positive affect→Life satisfac- tion0.183***0.0130.4300.183***0.0130.407 Self-compassion→Life satisfac- tion0.089***0.0110.2750.089***0.0110.283 Life Stress→Life satisfaction − 0.048***0.006 − 0.259 − 0.048***0.006 − 0.253

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life can help clients to be more tolerant of and receptive to their own emotional state, which could eventually help them to have a better attitude toward their lives.

Fourth, gender differences were found in stress, positive affect, and self-compassion, but not in life satisfaction. More specifically, men reported higher levels of positive affect, self-compassion, and satisfaction with life, while women reported higher levels of stress. These findings correspond with previous studies that showed women experienced greater stress in terms of physical appearance, property, and academic life (Im and Jeong 2009; Kim 2011; Shin et al. 2003; Hwang 1994). In addition, multigroup analysis showed that there was a gender difference in the path from stress to self-compassion. Although this path was significant in both groups, it was stronger in women. In other words, women seem to be less self-compassionate than men in stressful situations. This is concerning, especially given that women reported greater volumes of stress. These negative cognitive reactions showed a negative association with overall self-compassion. This finding suggests that women may engage in less adaptive strategies to cope with stress, which in turn can lead to lower self-compassion. Neff (2003a) has pointed out that even though women are expected to show

higher self-compassion, as they possess a more interdepend- ent sense of self (Cross and Madson 1997; Gilligan 1988) and are more empathetic (Eisenberg and Lennon, 1983;

Zahn-Waxler et al., 1991), they are actually less self-compassionate. This may be because they are more self-critical (Leadbeater et al. 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999). How- ever, there are some studies that found no gender differences in self-compassion (Barnard and Curry 2011), and cultural differences may also play a role (Neff 2003a). Therefore, more studies in this area are needed.

Conclusion

University students experience greater stress than people in other age groups, and such stress can have a negative impact on their psychological adjustment (Edwards and Rothbard 2000). It can also make them lose their purpose in life (Bynner et al. 1997) and have difficulties in setting and pursuing goals (Evans and Heinz 1994; Shulman et al.

2005). As emerging adulthood is both an important period of opportunity for life changes and a vulnerable phase, how individuals’ functional capacity develops according to their

Fig. 3 Structural Coefficient Estimates of Model with Men (Women) University Students.

The estimates are standardized.

Solid lines indicate estimates with no gender difference, and dotted lines indicate estimates with significant gender difference. * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***

p < .001

Note.The estimates are standardized. Solid lines indicate estimates with no gender difference, and dotted lines indicate estimates with significant gender difference.

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

LS PA

LSS

SC

−0.19***(−0.21***)

−0.26*** (−0.28***)

−0.35***(−0.57***) 0.27***(0.25***)

0.44***(0.41***)

−0.19***

(−0.17***)

Table 9 Results of the Final Structural Equation Model

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Path Men Women

B 𝛽 95% CI b 𝛽 95% CI

lower upper lower upper

LSS → PA → LS − 0.016** − 0.085 − 0.025 − 0.008 − 0.016** 0.087 − 0.027 − 0.010 LSS → SC → LS − 0.018*** − 0.095 − 0.027 − 0.012 − 0.027*** − 0.143 − 0.041 − 0.015 LSS → PA → SC → LS − 0.002* − 0.010 − 0.004 − 0.001 − 0.002* − 0.009 − 0.004 − 0.001

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resilience, personality, and psychological resources will have a significant impact on their psychological health and development as they progress through life.

The present study has the following significance. First, it shows the importance of positive affect and self-compassion as mediators in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction. The university years are a period in-between adolescence and adulthood, marked by fundamental environmental changes, a sense of bewilderment, psychological pressure, and conflicts (Park 2013). During such a period of development and transformation, which inevitably entails high levels of stress, it is very important to help young adults to successfully resolve their developmental issues. Second, the present study also provides an empirical basis for the development of interventions to foster self-compassion and increase positive affect, which are not inherent but can be developed through education and counseling. Third, gender differences found in the present study provide a basis to consider such discrepancies in the development and conduct of related interventions. Finally, self-compassion is lowest during adolescence, in which competition in terms of physical appearance and grades are high (Neff 2003a). Therefore, as university students have relatively low self-compassion, interventions to develop this aspect are expected to have considerable benefits in stress relief.

The limitations of the present study and directions for future research are as follows. First, the present study only targeted university students, so further research with other age groups is needed. Self-compassion and positive affect change with age (Neff and Vonk 2009; Charles et al. 2003), so they may function differently in other age groups. Sec- ond, although the present research model did not specify the relationship between positive affect and self-compassion, recent research findings suggest that there is a certain relationship between these two constructs. Some studies suggest that self-compassion functions as an emotional regulatory strategy that lowers negative psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety (Neff 2003a; Neff et al. 2007; Bar- nard and Curry 2012; Leary et al. 2007), while some other studies show that positive affect can promote self-compassion (Park 2014; Brown and Ryan 2003; Fredrickson et al.

2008). Therefore, the causal direction between these two constructs is not clear. When the relationship is clarified through further empirical research, a future research model may specify the path between self-compassion and positive affect. Third, as the present study is cross-sectional, a lon- gitudinal study is needed to confirm the causality among the constructs.

Author contributions Conceptualization, S-KY and HC; methodology HC and S-KY; software, HC; validation, HC and CJP; formal analysis, HC; investigation, HC and CJP. Resources HC and CJP; data curation,

HC; writing—original draft preparation, HC and CJP; writing—review and editing, S-KY; supervision, S-KY.

Funding This research received no external funding.

Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

Code availability Not applicable.

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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