Supplementary Materials Appendix A
The Extraction of the Emotion Index of General Public on Twitter
The US public’s emotional reactions on Twitter to the COVID-19 before and after the pandemic was collected by using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) method (Tausczik, & Pennebaker, 2010; Pennebaker, et al., 2015). LIWC is a text analysis tool based on a computer software program, which can quantitatively analyze the word categories of text content. After more than 20 years of development, it has been shown to have good reliability and validity and has been widely used by psychological researchers (Tausczik & Pennebaker, 2010). In the current study, the measurement of negative emotion index of Twitter was based on 499 phrases of negative emotion vocabulary of LIWC2007. In addition, the measurement of positive emotion index was based on 408 phrases of positive emotion vocabulary of
LIWC2007.
We collected the US user data from the public Twitter API for two time periods:
1) between 8th December 2019 and 8th January 2020 and 2) between 19th March 2020 and 19th April 2020. Based on the Google Trends report
(https://trends.google.com/trends), there were nearly zero searches for the term
“coronavirus” until 20th January 2020 in the United States. Additionally, as the COVID-19 was not officially identified as a novel coronavirus disease until 9th January 2020 (Wuhan Municipal Health Commission, 2020), we considered that taking one month before this date is a proper time interval for assessing individuals’
emotions “before the outbreak”. Moreover, as US users’ search interest for
“coronavirus” hit its peak on 18th March 2020, we defined the month after this date as the time interval for “after the outbreak”. In total, 165,069 tweets from 138,385 US users during these periods were collected.
Data processing was conducted using Python version 3.7. We first identified the US users by using the “country” code. To analyses tweets, we extracted each users’
processed tweet text and the creation time of a tweet to form the basic dataset. We then aggregated these processed datasets of the same day into a single plain text file.
With the aim to understand peoples’ emotions, we calculated the frequency of each emotional keywords within each text file. The frequency of each emotional keywords was divided by the total number of tweet text of the day to generate a score for each emotional dimension of the users. Finally, we subtracted the scores for negative
emotion dimensions from positive emotion dimensions as an indication for the Twitter Emotion Index.
Findings
The US general public’s Twitter emotion one month before and after the
outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic are shown in Figure 1. As can be seen, the emotion index on Twitter maintained a stable fluctuation within positive ranges (i.e., positive emotions > negative emotions) before the pandemic outbreak. However, there was a drastic fluctuation in the general public’s emotion index one month after the pandemic outbreak, and in some days the emotions are showing negative direction (i.e., positive emotions < negative emotions). There was a significant difference between the general public’s overall emotion index before (M = 0.01, SD = 0.002) and after (M = 0.004, SD = 0.01) the pandemic outbreak, t = 3.32, p = .001.
Figure 1
Emotion Index of US General Public on Twitter One Month Before and After COVID- 19 Outbreak
8/12/19 11/12/19
14/12/19 17/12/19
20/12/19 23/12/19
26/12/19 29/12/19
1/1/20 4/1/20
7/1/20
20/3/20 24/3/20
27/3/20 30/3/20
2/4/20 5/4/20
8/4/20 11/4/20
14/4/20 17/4/20
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Left Panel: Emotion Index Before Outbreak Right Panel: Emotion Index After Outbreak
The significant decrease in the emotional index of the US general public on Twitter after the pandemic is mainly a result of the remarkable increase in negative emotions during this period (see Figure 2). These results are consistent with earlier
studies which have investigated the psychological reaction of the general public during the pandemic in Italy, Denmark, and China (Mazza et al., 2020; Sønderskov et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). There is growing evidence that emotional distress during the pandemic is highly prevalent among the general public across the world.
Therefore, it is important to explore interventions to alleviate the general public’s negative affect in the pandemic lockdown.
Figure 2
Negative Emotions of US General Public on Twitter One Month Before and After COVID-19 Outbreak
8/12/19 10/12/19
12/12/19 14/12/19
16/12/19 18/12/19
20/12/19 22/12/19
24/12/19 26/12/19
28/12/19 30/12/19
1/1/20 3/1/20
5/1/20 7/1/20 0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Negative Emotion Before COVID-19
18/3/20 20/3/20
23/3/20 25/3/20
27/3/20 29/3/20
31/3/20 2/4/20
4/4/20 6/4/20
8/4/20 10/4/20
12/4/20 14/4/20
16/4/20 18/4/20 -0.01
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Negative Emotion After COVID-19
Appendix B
State Self-Compassion Scale - Long form HOW I FEEL TOWARDS MYSELF RIGHT NOW
状态性自我关怀量表——长版 我现在对自己的感觉是怎样的
Think about a situation you are experiencing right now that is painful or difficult. It could be some challenge in your life, or perhaps you are feeling inadequate in some way. Please indicate how well each statement applies to how you are feeling toward yourself right now as you think about this situation, using the following scale:
思考一个你正在经历的痛苦的或困难的情形。这可以是你在生活中遇到的一些 挑战，或者是也许你现在感到不足的地方。请用下面的量表指出，当你想到这 个情形时，下列陈述与你现在对自己的感觉有多相符:
1= Not at all True for Me / 与我完全不相符
5= Very true for me true / 与我非常相符
1. I’m giving myself the caring and tenderness I need.
我给予自己我所需要的关怀和柔软。
2. I’m obsessing and fixating on everything that’s wrong.
我对一切不对劲的事情都感到纠结。
3. I see my difficulties as part of life that everyone goes through.
我认为我的困难是生活的一部分, 是每个人都会经历的。
4. I’m being pretty tough on myself.
我对自己太苛刻了。
5. I’m keeping my emotions in balanced perspective.
我正以一种平衡的状态来调整自己的情绪。
6. I feel separate and cut off from the rest of the world.
我感觉自己与外界分离和隔绝。
7. I’m being kind to myself.
我对自己是友好的。
8. I’m getting carried away with my feelings.
我被我的情感冲昏了头脑。
9. I’m remembering that there are lots of others in the world feeling like I am.
我想起世界上还有很多人和我有同样的感受。
10. I’m being a bit cold-hearted towards myself.
我对自己有点冷漠。
11. I’m taking a balanced view of this painful situation.
我正以一种平衡的视角去看待这个痛苦的情形。
12. I feel like I’m struggling more than others right now.
我感觉我现在比别人更挣扎。
13. I’m being supportive toward myself.
我对自己持支持性态度。
14. I’m blowing this painful incident out of proportion.
我把这件痛苦的事情过分夸大了。
15. I’m remembering that difficult feelings are shared by most people.
我想起来那种艰难的感受大多数人也有过。
16. I feel intolerant and impatient toward myself.
我感觉我对自己缺乏耐性和耐心。
17. I’m keeping things in perspective.
我正以一种客观的视角看待事物。
18. I’m feeling all alone right now.
我现在感到很孤独。
Appendix C
Self-compassionate writing condition 自我关怀式写作任务
Please think about a particular situation you are experiencing right now that is painful or difficult. It could be some struggle in your life, or perhaps you are feeling inadequate in some way. Please don’t think of a situation in which you are upset with someone else, but instead think of a situation where you are feeling badly about yourself or else you are going through a hard time. Decide on a single situation that you will focus on throughout this study.
思考一个你经历的痛苦的或困难的情形。这可以是你在生活中遇到的一些挑战，
或者是也许你现在感到不足的地方。请不要回想那些你对别人感到难过的情况，
而是回想一个你对自己感觉不好的情况，或者你正在经历的一段艰难的时期。
请集中思考意见事情，整个活动过程将贯穿这一件事情
[State measures inserted here, answered in reference to the painful or difficult situation.]
请指出您刚才思考的事件/体验对当时的您来说有多困难。
We would now like you to take part in a brief exercise, to see if it is helpful in dealing with this painful or difficult situation.
现在，我们想让你参加一个简短的练习，看看它对处理这种痛苦或困难的情况 是否有帮助。
[1. Mindfulness writing prompt]
Please complete this brief writing exercise and follow the instructions as closely as possible.
In the space below, please write about what thoughts and emotions are coming up for you right now regarding this difficult situation.
Note any uncomfortable emotions you may have, such as feeling stressed, ashamed, sad, anxious, and so on.
As you write and notice your feelings, see if you can validate your experience with an attitude of acceptance and non-judgment. Try not to downplay your feelings, but at the same time please try not to exaggerate them either.
(For example, “I feel frustrated about the fact that my mom doesn't understand why I don't want to come home for Thanksgiving. It's only natural that I want to spend time with my friends. I also feel guilty though because I don't want to hurt her feelings. This is really hard for me right now...”)
*Remember-- your responses are completely anonymous and your writing is confidential. Don’t worry about spelling, sentence
structure, or grammar.
[1. 静观当下写作提示]
请您回顾刚才思考的痛苦的/困难的事件，在下面的空白处，写下您现在对于那 个情形的想法和情绪。记下您可能有的任何不舒服的情绪，比如感到压力、羞 愧、悲伤、焦虑等等。
当你写下并注意到您的感受时，看看你是否能用接受和不评判的态度来看待你 的经历，对当前的境遇抱以最大的和有效的关怀。对我们的痛苦体验持以平衡 的觉察，而不是忽视或者夸大我们的痛苦。
(例如，“我妈妈不理解我为什么不想回家过端午节，这让我很沮丧。我想花时 间和朋友在一起是很自然的。但我也感到内疚，因为我不想伤害她的感情。现 在对我来说真的很难……)
*记住——您的回复是完全匿名的，您的文章是保密的。请不要担心拼写、句子 结构或语法的问题。
[SPACE FOR WRITING]
[2. Common humanity writing prompt]
In the space below, please write about how other people may share similar feelings when encountering situations like this.
Consider that experiencing difficult situations is a part of being human, and that you are not alone. Although the way people struggle is different and the amount of challenge varies, all people
face difficulties in life. What you are experiencing is not abnormal, but is a part of life.
(For example, “I am not the only one who struggles with these types of holiday situations. Part of being human is learning how to get through times like these. Most people have a difficult transition when they go away to college. It's not just me...”)
*Remember-- your responses are completely anonymous and your writing is confidential. Don’t worry about spelling, sentence
structure, or grammar.
[2. 共通人性写作提示]
请在下面空白处写下其他人遇到类似情况时可能会有什么相似的感受。
经历困境是人类的一部分，你并不孤单，人类的生命息息相关，无力感和失望 感人人都会有。尽管原因不同，环境不同，但我在困难时刻所体验到的痛苦正 如其他人在困难时刻所体验到的痛苦过程却是一样的。
(例如，“我不是唯一一个为这种困难而苦恼的人。人类的一部分就是学会如何 度过这样痛苦的时刻。大多数人在生活中都不会遇到困难和挫折。不只是我会 经历……”)
*记住——您的回复是完全匿名的，您的文章是保密的。请不要担心拼写、句子 结构或语法的问题。
[SPACE FOR WRITING]
[3. Self-kindness writing prompt]
In the space below, please write any words of support,
encouragement and kindness to yourself that would be helpful to hear right now.
If you are not sure what to say, imagine what you would say to a close friend who was struggling with a similar difficult situation.
What words would you use to convey compassion, support, and non- judgmental understanding? Now see if you can use this as
inspiration for what to say to yourself.
(For example, “You're doing the best you can. I'm so sorry you're struggling with this. It's going to be okay. I will help you and support you to get through this...”)
*Remember-- your responses are completely anonymous and your writing is confidential. Don’t worry about spelling, sentence
structure, or grammar.
[3. 自我友善写作提示]
请在下面空白处，写下任何对自己有帮助的支持、鼓励和善意的话。以友爱的 方式理解自己，向自己传递出了温暖、友爱和关怀的平和之举。
如果你不确定该说什么，想象一下，你会对一位也遇到类似困境的亲密朋友说 些什么。你会用什么词语来表达同情、支持和非评判性的理解? 现在看看你是 否能以此为灵感，对自己说些什么。
(例如:“你已经尽力了。”我很抱歉让你这么纠结。一切都会好的。我会帮助你，
支持你度过这个难关……”)
*记住——您的回复是完全匿名的，您的文章是保密的。请不要担心拼写、句子 结构或语法的问题。
[SPACE FOR WRITING]
Please take some time to read what you wrote to yourself and see how it feels to hear these words of kindness and concern directed towards you.
Notice if anything is particularly comforting or helpful.
Take a few slow, deep breaths as you read your own words. Let yourself receive this support.
请花点时间读读你给自己写的东西，看看当你听到这些话语时是什么感受。注 意你刚才使用的方法是否有安慰和帮助的作用。当你阅读自己的文字时，做几 次缓慢的深呼吸。让自己接受这种支持。
[Compliance check and post-test state measures completed in reference to the difficult situation inserted here.]
请选择以下选项中最符合您在问卷开始时写作任务的描述：
A以一种自我接纳和友好的方式写下自己的感受，意识到经历困境是人类生活 的一部分，像一个支持你的朋友一样支持你自己
B尽可能详细地描述情形的细节，涉及到的人物、自己的情绪感受和说了什么 话。
Control Condition 控制组写作
Please think about a particular situation you are experiencing right now that is painful or difficult. It could be some struggle in your life, or perhaps you are feeling inadequate in some way. Please don’t think of a situation in which you are upset with someone else, but instead think of a situation where you are feeling badly about yourself or else you are going through a hard time. Decide on a single situation that you will focus on throughout this study.
思考一个你经历的痛苦的或困难的情形。这可以是你在生活中遇到的一些挑战，
或者是也许你现在感到不足的地方。请不要回想那些你对别人感到难过的情况，
而是回想一个你对自己感觉不好的情况，或者你正在经历的一段艰难的时期。
请集中思考一件事情，整个活动过程将贯穿这一件事情。
[State measures inserted here, answered in reference to the painful or difficult situation.]
请指出您刚才思考的事件/体验对当时的您来说有多困难。
We would now like you to take part in a brief exercise, to see if it is helpful in dealing with this painful or difficult situation.
现在，我们想让你参加一个简短的练习，看看它对处理这种痛苦或困难的情况 是否有帮助。
[1. Description writing prompt]
Please complete this brief writing exercise and follow the instructions as closely as possible.
In the space below, please write about what exactly is occurring in this difficult situation. Try to be as descriptive as possible.
(For example, “Our family is having an argument about whether or not I should go home for Thanksgiving break. I want to stay in Austin but my mother feels upset because...”)
*Remember-- your responses are completely anonymous and your writing is confidential. Don’t worry about spelling, sentence
structure, or grammar.
[1. 描述性写作提示]
请您回顾刚才思考的痛苦的/困难的事件，写下在这种困难的情况下究竟发生了 什么。尽量描述清楚。
(例如，“我们家正在争论我是否应该回家过端午节假期。”我想留在学校，但我 妈妈不高兴，因为……)
*记住——您的回复是完全匿名的，您的文章是保密的。请不要担心拼写、句子 结构或语法的问题。
[SPACE FOR WRITING]
[2. People involved writing prompt]
In the space below, please write about who is involved in the situation if it involves more than just you. Please describe the
people involved with as much detail as possible, even if you are the only one involved (in this case describe yourself).
(For example, “My mother, sister, and brother are taking different sides in the dispute over Thanksgiving. My brother supports me, but my sister doesn't. My sister is two years older and my brother one year younger... ”)
*Remember-- your responses are completely anonymous and your writing is confidential. Don’t worry about spelling, sentence
structure, or grammar.
[2. 涉及到的人物写作提示]
在下面的空白处写下，如果该事件中涉及到的不仅仅是你，请写下还涉及到谁。
请尽可能详细地描述涉及的人，如果只有你一个人(在这种情况下，请描述你自 己)。
(例如，“我的母亲，姐姐和弟弟在某某事情的争论中站在不同的立场。我弟弟 支持我，但我姐姐不支持。我姐姐大我两岁，我弟弟小我一岁。”)
*记住——您的回复是完全匿名的，您的文章是保密的。请不要担心拼写、句子 结构或语法的问题。
[SPACE FOR WRITING]
[3. Words spoken writing prompt]
In the space below, please write any words that have been spoken in the situation, either what you have said to yourself, what other
people have said to you, or what you have said to other people.
Please use as much detail as possible.
(For example, “I told my mom that I really didn't want to come back for Thanksgiving and that I wanted to rest and hang out with my friends. She told me that I should think of her feelings more...”)
*Remember-- your responses are completely anonymous and your writing is confidential. Don’t worry about spelling, sentence
structure, or grammar.
[3. 涉及到的话语写作提示]
在下面的空白处，写下在该事件中别人说过的话，你对自己说过的话，别人对 你说过的话，或者你对别人说过的话。请尽可能详细地说明。
(例如，“我告诉妈妈我真的不想回来过端午节，我想休息一下，和朋友们出去 玩。她告诉我，我应该多想想她的感受……”)
*记住——您的回复是完全匿名的，您的文章是保密的。请不要担心拼写、句子 结构或语法的问题。
[SPACE FOR WRITING]
Please take some time to read what you wrote see if anything particularly stands out for you.
请花点时间阅读你缩写的内容，看看有什么地方是需要特别强调的。
[Compliance check and post-test state measures completed in reference to the difficult situation inserted here.]
请选择以下选项中最符合您在问卷开始时写作任务的描述：
A以一种自我接纳和友好的方式写下自己的感受，意识到经历困境是人类生活 的一部分，像一个支持你的朋友一样支持你自己
B尽可能详细地描述情形的细节，涉及到的人物、自己的情绪感受和说了什么 话。
References
Mazza, C., Ricci, E., Biondi, S., Colasanti, M., Ferracuti, S., Napoli, C., & Roma, P.
(2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Italian people during the COVID-19 pandemic: Immediate psychological responses and associated factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3165.
Pennebaker, J. W., Boyd, R. L., Jordan, K., & Blackburn, K. (2015). The development and psychometric properties of LIWC2015.
Sønderskov, K. M., Dinesen, P. T., Santini, Z. I., & Østergaard, S. D. (2020). The depressive state of Denmark during the COVID-19 pandemic. Acta
neuropsychiatrica, 1-3.
Tausczik, Y. R., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2010). The psychological meaning of words:
LIWC and computerized text analysis methods. Journal of language and social psychology, 29(1), 24-54.
Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., Ho, C. S., & Ho, R. C. (2020).
Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in China. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(5), 1729.
Wuhan Municipal Health Commission. (2020). Wuhan Municipal Health Commission report on the Pneumonia of unknown cause.
http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/xwzx_28/gsgg/202004/t20200430_1199591.shtml
