Renewable Energy
Resources, Challenges and Applications
Edited by Mansour Al Qubeissi, Ahmad El-kharouf and Hakan Serhad Soyhan
and Hakan Serhad Soyhan
The demand for secure, affordable and clean energy is a priority call to humanity.
Challenges associated with conventional energy resources, such as depletion of fossil fuels, high costs and associated greenhouse gas emissions, have stimulated interests
in renewable energy resources. For instance, there have been clear gaps and rushed thoughts about replacing fossil-fuel driven engines with electric vehicles without long-
term plans for energy security and recycling approaches. This book aims to provide a clear vision to scientists, industrialists and policy makers on renewable energy resources, predicted challenges and emerging applications. It can be used to help produce new technologies for sustainable, connected and harvested energy. A clear
response to economic growth and clean environment demands is also illustrated.
Published in London, UK
© 2020 IntechOpen
© RkaKoka / iStock
ISBN 978-1-78984-283-8
Renewable Energy - Resources, Challenges and Applications
Renewable Energy -
Resources, Challenges and Applications
Edited by Mansour Al Qubeissi,
Ahmad El-kharouf and Hakan Serhad Soyhan
Published in London, United Kingdom
Contributors
Boumediene Allaoua, Brahim Mebarki, Salah Tamalouzt, Nabil Benyahia, Abdelmounaim Tounzi, Amar Bousbaine, Martin Khzouz, Evangelos Gkanas, Ahmed Elwardany, Mahmoud Omar Amer, Samuel Asumadu- Sarkodie, Margaret Adobea Oduro, Samuel Gyamfi, Francis Kemausuor, Tuğçe Demirdelen, Emel Bakmaz, Kemal Aygul, Burak Esenboga, Mehmet Tumay, Khalid O. Moh. Yahya, Mohamed Salem, Nassim Iqteit, Sajjad Ahmad Khan, Huseyin Salvarli, Mustafa Seckin Salvarli, Miroslav Stanković, Pavlović Stefan, Dalibor Marinković, Marina Tišma, Margarita Gabrovska, Dimitrinka Nikolova, Shezan Arefin, İzzet Yüksek, İlker Karadağ, Remember Samu, Murat Fahrioglu, Festus Victor Bekun, Pankaj Kumar, Nitai Pal, Kumar Avinash Chandra, Himanshu Sharma, Sanjay Patel, Mohit Kumar, Carmen Luisa Barbosa Guedes, Jonathan Baumi, Caroline Milani Bertosse, Giovanni Rinaldi, Solomon Uhunamure, Nthaduleni Samuel Nethengwe, David Tinarwo, Lyubomyr Nykyruy, Grzegorz Wisz, Valentyna Yakubiv, Iryna Hryhoruk, Rostyslav Yavorskyi, Zhanna Zapukhlyak, John Paravantis, Nikoletta Kontoulis, Felix Farret, Emanuel Vieira, Faik Hamad, Muzaffar Ali, Rubina Kamal, Nadeem Ahmed Sheikh, Murat Kunelbayev, Chenzhen Ji, Kai Wang, Zhen Qin, Wei Tong, T. Cetin Akinci, Omer Akgun, Nimrah Khalid, Sarmad Ahmad Qamar, Muhammad Asgher, Belkacem Draoui, Abdelghani Draoui, Rubeena Kousar, Yedilkhan Amirgaliyev, Kalizhanova Aliya, Ainur Kozbakova, Omirlan Auelbekov, Nazbek Katayev
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Meet the editors
Dr. Al Qubeissi is a Chartered Engineer, Fellow of the Higher Ed- ucation Academy, member of several engineering organisations (including UnICEG, IAENG–ISME, IMechE and the Institute for Future Transport and Cities), and Senior Lecturer and Course Director for Master of Engineering programmes at CU. He is ex- perienced in computational thermo-fluids, biofuels and energy systems. Other relevant expertise includes turbine combustion, PV/T and battery thermal management. His research efforts have been disseminat- ed via 10s of publications in high impact refereed journals, conference proceedings and books. Since joining CU in 2015, Dr. Al Qubeissi has been involved in leading 10s of research projects and PhD theses. Prior to that role, he was a Lecturer at the University of Brighton, UK.
Dr. El-kharouf is a Research Fellow at the Centre for Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Research, School of Chemical Engineering, UoB, UK. He is the manager of the EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Train- ing in Fuel Cells and their Fuels; a collaborative consortium of UoB, UCL, Imperial College London, University of Nottingham and Loughborough University. His primary research is focussed on the development of next generation automotive Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFCs), aiming for an operation temperature of up to 120˚C and increasing the stack volumetric and gravimetric power density. Dr El-kharouf’s other research activities include the development and testing of materials for PEM electrolysers, solid oxide fuel cell development and the integration of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies in transport and stationary applications.
Professor Soyhan has been a member of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, SU since 1992. He received his BEng (1992), MSc (1995) and PhD (2000) from Istanbul Technical University and undertook post-doctoral research in chemical kinetics at the Combustion Physics Division, Lund University, Sweden and on HCCI engines and chemical kinetics at Shell Global Solutions, Chester, UK. Currently, he is working on fuels and combustion studies in transport. He is the Head of Local Energy Research Association and Head of the Combustion Institute, Turkey. Professor Soyhan is the Founder and Director of TeamSan Co, a member of the Turkish Society of Mechan- ical Engineers, and an associate member of TUBITAK USETEG Committee on R&D projects of the Transportation, Defence and Energy Technologies Group.
Preface XIII Section 1
Economic and Regional Challenges 1
Chapter 1 3
For Sustainable Development: Future Trends in Renewable Energy and Enabling Technologies
by Mustafa Seckin Salvarli and Huseyin Salvarli
Chapter 2 19
Energy Security and Renewable Energy: A Geopolitical Perspective by John A. Paravantis and Nikoletta Kontoulis
Chapter 3 47
Evaluating Biogas Technology in South Africa: Awareness and Perceptions towards Adoption at Household Level in Limpopo Province
by Solomon Eghosa Uhunamure, Nthaduleni Samuel Nethengwe and David Tinarwo
Chapter 4 63
Evaluating the Success of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policies in Ghana: Matching the Policy Objectives against Policy Instruments and Outcomes
by Margaret Adobea Oduro, Samuel Gyamfi, Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Francis Kemausuor
Chapter 5 85
Energy Policy Decision in the Light of Energy Consumption Forecast by 2030 in Zimbabwe
by Remember Samu, Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie, Murat Fahrioglu and Festus Victor Bekun
Chapter 6 105
Renewable Energy in Ukraine-Poland Region: Comparison, Critical Analysis, and Opportunities
by Lyubomyr Nykyruy, Valentyna Yakubiv, Grzegorz Wisz, Iryna Hryhoruk, Zhanna Zapukhlyak and Rostyslaw Yavorskyi
Preface XV Section 1
Economic and Regional Challenges 1
Chapter 1 3
For Sustainable Development: Future Trends in Renewable Energy and Enabling Technologies
by Mustafa Seckin Salvarli and Huseyin Salvarli
Chapter 2 19
Energy Security and Renewable Energy: A Geopolitical Perspective by John A. Paravantis and Nikoletta Kontoulis
Chapter 3 47
Evaluating Biogas Technology in South Africa: Awareness and Perceptions towards Adoption at Household Level in Limpopo Province
by Solomon Eghosa Uhunamure, Nthaduleni Samuel Nethengwe and David Tinarwo
Chapter 4 63
Evaluating the Success of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policies in Ghana: Matching the Policy Objectives against Policy Instruments and Outcomes
by Margaret Adobea Oduro, Samuel Gyamfi, Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Francis Kemausuor
Chapter 5 85
Energy Policy Decision in the Light of Energy Consumption Forecast by 2030 in Zimbabwe
by Remember Samu, Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie, Murat Fahrioglu and Festus Victor Bekun
Chapter 6 105
Renewable Energy in Ukraine-Poland Region: Comparison, Critical Analysis, and Opportunities
by Lyubomyr Nykyruy, Valentyna Yakubiv, Grzegorz Wisz, Iryna Hryhoruk, Zhanna Zapukhlyak and Rostyslaw Yavorskyi
Chapter 7 129 Operational Challenges towards Deployment of Renewable Energy
by Pankaj Kumar, Kumar Avinash Chandra, Sanjay Patel, Nitai Pal, Mohit Kumar and Himanshu Sharma
Chapter 8 145
Bioinspired Nanocomposites: Functional Materials for Sustainable Greener Technologies
by Sarmad Ahmad Qamar, Muhammad Asgher and Nimrah Khalid
Chapter 9 159
Road Transportation Industry Facing the Energy and Climate Challenges by Brahim Mebarki, Belkacem Draoui, Boumediene Allaoua
and Abdelghani Draoui
Chapter 10 185
Solid Green Biodiesel Catalysts Derived from Coal Fly Ash by Miroslav Stanković, Stefan Pavlović, Dalibor Marinković, Marina Tišma, Margarita Gabrovska and Dimitrinka Nikolova Section 3
Biofuels and Hydrogen Systems 209
Chapter 11 211
Biomass Carbonization
by Mahmoud Amer and Ahmed Elwardany
Chapter 12 233
Aviation Fuels and Biofuels
by Jonathan Baumi, Caroline Milani Bertosse and Carmen Luisa Barbosa Guedes
Chapter 13 255
Hydrogen Technologies for Mobility and Stationary Applications:
Hydrogen Production, Storage and Infrastructure Development by Martin Khzouz and Evangelos I. Gkanas
Section 4
Solar Energy 279
Chapter 14 281
The PV/Wind System for Sustainable Development and Power Generation with Real Dynamic Input Datasets in the Distribution Power Systems by Emel Bakmaz, Kemal Aygul, Burak Esenboga, Tugce Demirdelen and Mehmet Tumay
Chapter 15 303
Recovery of Photovoltaic Module Heat Using Thermoelectric Effect by Felix A. Farret and Emanuel A. Vieira
by Rubeena Kousar, Muzaffar Ali, Nadeem Ahmed Sheikh, Faik Hamad and Muhammad Kamal Amjad
Chapter 17 349
Thermal and Hydraulic Analysis of Transfer Medium Motion Regime in Flat Plate Solar Collector
by Yedilkhan Amirgaliyev, Murat Kunelbayev, Kalizhanova Aliya, Ainur Kozbakova, Omirlan Auelbekov and Nazbek Katayev Section 5
Wind Energy 369
Chapter 18 371
Offshore Renewable Energy by Giovanni Rinaldi
Chapter 19 383
Wind Speed Analysis Using Signal Processing Technique by Omer Akgun and T. Cetin Akinci
Chapter 20 397
Wind Turbine Integration to Tall Buildings by Ilker Karadag and Izzet Yuksek
Section 6
Energy Management 413
Chapter 21 415
Thermal Energy Storage for Solar Energy Utilization: Fundamentals and Applications
by Kai Wang, Zhen Qin, Wei Tong and Chenzhen Ji
Chapter 22 447
A Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting System
by Khalid Yahya, Mohammed Salem, Nassim Iqteit and Sajjad Ahmad Khan
Chapter 23 465
Optimization Techniques of Islanded Hybrid Microgrid System by Sk. Shezan Arefin
Chapter 24 491
Performances Analysis of a Micro-Grid Connected Multi-Renewable Energy Sources System Associated with Hydrogen Storage
by Salah Tamalouzt, Nabil Benyahia, Abdelmounaim Tounzi and Amar Bousbaine
Chapter 7 129 Operational Challenges towards Deployment of Renewable Energy
by Pankaj Kumar, Kumar Avinash Chandra, Sanjay Patel, Nitai Pal, Mohit Kumar and Himanshu Sharma
Chapter 8 145
Bioinspired Nanocomposites: Functional Materials for Sustainable Greener Technologies
by Sarmad Ahmad Qamar, Muhammad Asgher and Nimrah Khalid
Chapter 9 159
Road Transportation Industry Facing the Energy and Climate Challenges by Brahim Mebarki, Belkacem Draoui, Boumediene Allaoua
and Abdelghani Draoui
Chapter 10 185
Solid Green Biodiesel Catalysts Derived from Coal Fly Ash by Miroslav Stanković, Stefan Pavlović, Dalibor Marinković, Marina Tišma, Margarita Gabrovska and Dimitrinka Nikolova Section 3
Biofuels and Hydrogen Systems 209
Chapter 11 211
Biomass Carbonization
by Mahmoud Amer and Ahmed Elwardany
Chapter 12 233
Aviation Fuels and Biofuels
by Jonathan Baumi, Caroline Milani Bertosse and Carmen Luisa Barbosa Guedes
Chapter 13 255
Hydrogen Technologies for Mobility and Stationary Applications:
Hydrogen Production, Storage and Infrastructure Development by Martin Khzouz and Evangelos I. Gkanas
Section 4
Solar Energy 279
Chapter 14 281
The PV/Wind System for Sustainable Development and Power Generation with Real Dynamic Input Datasets in the Distribution Power Systems by Emel Bakmaz, Kemal Aygul, Burak Esenboga, Tugce Demirdelen and Mehmet Tumay
Chapter 15 303
Recovery of Photovoltaic Module Heat Using Thermoelectric Effect by Felix A. Farret and Emanuel A. Vieira
by Rubeena Kousar, Muzaffar Ali, Nadeem Ahmed Sheikh, Faik Hamad and Muhammad Kamal Amjad
Chapter 17 349
Thermal and Hydraulic Analysis of Transfer Medium Motion Regime in Flat Plate Solar Collector
by Yedilkhan Amirgaliyev, Murat Kunelbayev, Kalizhanova Aliya, Ainur Kozbakova, Omirlan Auelbekov and Nazbek Katayev Section 5
Wind Energy 369
Chapter 18 371
Offshore Renewable Energy by Giovanni Rinaldi
Chapter 19 383
Wind Speed Analysis Using Signal Processing Technique by Omer Akgun and T. Cetin Akinci
Chapter 20 397
Wind Turbine Integration to Tall Buildings by Ilker Karadag and Izzet Yuksek
Section 6
Energy Management 413
Chapter 21 415
Thermal Energy Storage for Solar Energy Utilization: Fundamentals and Applications
by Kai Wang, Zhen Qin, Wei Tong and Chenzhen Ji
Chapter 22 447
A Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting System
by Khalid Yahya, Mohammed Salem, Nassim Iqteit and Sajjad Ahmad Khan
Chapter 23 465
Optimization Techniques of Islanded Hybrid Microgrid System by Sk. Shezan Arefin
Chapter 24 491
Performances Analysis of a Micro-Grid Connected Multi-Renewable Energy Sources System Associated with Hydrogen Storage
by Salah Tamalouzt, Nabil Benyahia, Abdelmounaim Tounzi and Amar Bousbaine
Preface
Nowadays, most human activities, from stationary applications of power generation, construction and industrial production to transport in all its forms of automotive, railway, marine and aviation, are reliant on fossil fuels. In addition, there is a con- stant increase in demand for energy worldwide that exceeds the currently predicted conventional energy resources available, i.e., fossil fuels. However, the consumption of fossil fuels causes significant damage to global and regional environments due to emission of harmful greenhouse gases. The increasing pressures to protect the environment from greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining energy security calls on scientists and engineers to create and develop new technologies to meet the growing energy demands. Hence, the motivation for collating relevant findings and solutions in this book.
The importance of renewable energy resources to any society comes from the potential to address the need for clean, sustainable and affordable energy for all. In this book, an overview of emerging energy technologies is provided to address the energy system challenges. Selective research inputs were reviewed and organised with the aim to inform a broad range of beneficiaries from public readers to subject experts of the recent developments, and to provide critical analysis of the latest developments. The book highlights the global nature of the energy challenge by drawing on activities and case studies from all over the world. The book demonstrates many emerging approaches and technologies adopted for different countries based on their available resources, the current energy system and the economic situation. In the last few decades, several new technologies and novel proposals have been made for replacing the conventional depleting energy systems with sustainable clean energy alternatives. These are collated in the book and a synopsis of the topics addressed is provided as follows.
Provisions of renewable and efficient energy systems are key parts of the
solution, but these are complicated with several political, economic and resource associated challenges. At present, the contribution of renewable energy to the world primary energy is insufficient to meet the required primary energy supplies. As described in Chapter 1, both developed and developing countries will continue to rely on the depleting fossil fuels in the coming decades. Many developing countries have been trying to restructure their energy sector.
However, this is proving to be a very challenging task. New technology costs, market shares and politics are the main barriers for new energy developments to penetrate the market. Countries’ investment into clean and sustainable energy systems is balanced against the need for rapid economic growth and the impact on social and industrial factors.
Many challenges regarding the feasibility of these solutions have been identified in Chapter 8. For example, the recent global trend of promoting electric vehicles as ‘a silver bullet solution’ to achieving clean transport is simplistic and optimistic.
Transforming the transport sector into an electric based system makes it highly dependent and interlinked with the stationary energy system through the electric
Preface
Nowadays, most human activities, from stationary applications of power generation, construction and industrial production to transport in all its forms of automotive, railway, marine and aviation, are reliant on fossil fuels. In addition, there is a con- stant increase in demand for energy worldwide that exceeds the currently predicted conventional energy resources available, i.e., fossil fuels. However, the consumption of fossil fuels causes significant damage to global and regional environments due to emission of harmful greenhouse gases. The increasing pressures to protect the environment from greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining energy security calls on scientists and engineers to create and develop new technologies to meet the growing energy demands. Hence, the motivation for collating relevant findings and solutions in this book.
The importance of renewable energy resources to any society comes from the potential to address the need for clean, sustainable and affordable energy for all. In this book, an overview of emerging energy technologies is provided to address the energy system challenges. Selective research inputs were reviewed and organised with the aim to inform a broad range of beneficiaries from public readers to subject experts of the recent developments, and to provide critical analysis of the latest developments. The book highlights the global nature of the energy challenge by drawing on activities and case studies from all over the world. The book demonstrates many emerging approaches and technologies adopted for different countries based on their available resources, the current energy system and the economic situation. In the last few decades, several new technologies and novel proposals have been made for replacing the conventional depleting energy systems with sustainable clean energy alternatives. These are collated in the book and a synopsis of the topics addressed is provided as follows.
Provisions of renewable and efficient energy systems are key parts of the
solution, but these are complicated with several political, economic and resource associated challenges. At present, the contribution of renewable energy to the world primary energy is insufficient to meet the required primary energy supplies. As described in Chapter 1, both developed and developing countries will continue to rely on the depleting fossil fuels in the coming decades. Many developing countries have been trying to restructure their energy sector.
However, this is proving to be a very challenging task. New technology costs, market shares and politics are the main barriers for new energy developments to penetrate the market. Countries’ investment into clean and sustainable energy systems is balanced against the need for rapid economic growth and the impact on social and industrial factors.
Many challenges regarding the feasibility of these solutions have been identified in Chapter 8. For example, the recent global trend of promoting electric vehicles as ‘a silver bullet solution’ to achieving clean transport is simplistic and optimistic.
Transforming the transport sector into an electric based system makes it highly dependent and interlinked with the stationary energy system through the electric
solar energy, are used to define an environmentally friendly and cost-effective approach. Such an approach can be adopted as a standalone energy provider or used in an existing power system with minimal modification; for example, some biofuels can be mixed with conventional fossil fuels without modifications to the internal combustion engines. If this is achieved, such an approach will be of great benefit to industries and societies, with direct impacts on the environment and economy. For instance, different types of bio-/fossil-fuel blends can lead to important products and applications.
It is important to understand the role of renewable energy in shaping energy security against the backdrop of global geopolitical, socioeconomic and
technological uncertainties. The evolving definition of energy security during the 20th and early 21st century is discussed initially. The dimensions, components and metrics of energy security are reviewed in Chapter 2, including a novel definition of energy security that comprises physical availability, economic affordability, accessibility from a socio-political standpoint and environmental acceptability.
The role of wind and solar energy are highlighted, with emphasis on the social acceptance of renewable energy in an energy security context. Other energy security indexes are discussed, focusing on sustainability and renewable energy.
Denmark, Germany, China, Russia and the US are examined as case studies that help us to understand the transition to renewable energy in the context of co-operation among states.
Advancement in energy policies has stimulated the adoption of instruments used in the renewable energy sector and climate change mitigation. Renewable energy policies play a crucial role in the abatement of greenhouse gas emissions, by providing access to modern energy and energy security by diversifying energy supply. For example, and as described in Chapter 4, there are numerous policies developed in Ghana to improve the uptake of renewable energy for electricity production and to ensure efficient use of electrical energy. Some of the specific government policy objectives include reducing technical and commercial losses in power supply, supporting the modernization and expansion of the energy infrastructure to meet the growing demands, ensuring reliability and accelerating the development and utilization of renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies. These policies have defined targets and a defined period in which to be implemented. In the current book, a comparative analysis is made with South Africa’s and Morocco’s renewable energy sectorial policies on the basis of various adopted strategies to their achievements and what policy makers in Ghana can learn from that.
Despite the enormous advantages associated with biogas technology, the level of awareness and perception remains low. It is therefore important to increase awareness of the technology at household level in critical energy regions, such as South Africa. In Chapter 3, a case study is made for Limpopo Province of South Africa, where 200 households are sampled of which 72 households use biogas digesters and 128 are without digesters. Primary data collection is obtained with the use of open and closed-ended questionnaires. The study recommends interventions through more elaborate awareness and promotion programmes in disseminating the technology as well as provision of technical assistance, loans, credits and subsidies to households willing to adopt the technology. Also, an
forecast another example of a policy challenged region (Zimbabwe) for its energy consumption by 2030. A time series data from 1980 to 2012 is utilised alongside econometric techniques to explore the causal relationship amongst the variables under review. The stationary test reveals the integration of all the data series of interest of order one. The autoregressive integrated moving average model forecasts Zimbabwe’s 2030 energy demand around 0.183 Quadrillion BTU against the current 0.174 Quadrillion Btu. The empirical finding is indicative for policy and decision makers who design the energy policy framework geared towards achieving the universal access to modern energy technologies in Zimbabwe.
Fundamental and applied research on renewable energy is actively supported both in terms of making significant contributions to the scientific development, address- ing the issue of energy independence and security of different countries. Detailed analyses of research findings in the fields of thermoelectricity, photoelectricity and bioenergy are made in Chapter 6 for two typical East European countries: Poland and Ukraine. This is to find regularities in the development of these areas in each state and to determine the prospects for joint research. Comparison of the state of research in these countries is an example of the analysis of the situation at the EU borders and may answer questions related to sustainable development, the mass transition to renewable energy, the refusal to use fossil fuels and nuclear power plants. Particular research is considered in each state and the possibility of organis- ing joint scientific research in order to mutually enhance the scientific potential is demonstrated.
The feasibility analysis on the different challenges in deployment of renewable energy is made to understand the global sustainability factors and envisage their future. The emphasis on cost and efficiency for technological advancement is the basic element for mass adaptation of renewable energy. At the same time, huge available resources, favourable economies and large social-economic benefits attract major parts of the globe to the transition from conventional to renewable energy. A typical example of such a scenario is noticeable in the case of India. In Chapter 7, the authors have explored the major options and barriers towards the deployment of different renewable energies in India, which will act as a catalyst to achieve India’s dream renewable energy target of 175 GW by 2022.
Economic development experienced by the world during the last two decades has led to a strong growth in demand for energy in the transport sector, with major developments in the different modes of transport. Currently, with facing the global energy challenges, the transport sector is still heavily dependent on petroleum products – a major strategic global issue. For instance, the aviation industry consumes about 177 billion litres of kerosene, moving more than 25,000 aircraft and 6 billion passengers. To achieve that, in 2015, the civil aviation industry generated about 781 million tons of CO2 corresponding to 2% all anthropogenic emissions of this greenhouse gas and all required energy is derived from fossil sources. To reduce the environmental impact, we must create alternative energy sources to bring energy security and to do this, it is paramount to increase research and development of viable production of bio-kerosene. The authors aim to present some varieties of biomass and its derivatives being studied as raw material for new aviation fuels such as ethanol, butanol, fatty acid methyl esters and fossil oils in Chapter 12.
solar energy, are used to define an environmentally friendly and cost-effective approach. Such an approach can be adopted as a standalone energy provider or used in an existing power system with minimal modification; for example, some biofuels can be mixed with conventional fossil fuels without modifications to the internal combustion engines. If this is achieved, such an approach will be of great benefit to industries and societies, with direct impacts on the environment and economy. For instance, different types of bio-/fossil-fuel blends can lead to important products and applications.
It is important to understand the role of renewable energy in shaping energy security against the backdrop of global geopolitical, socioeconomic and
technological uncertainties. The evolving definition of energy security during the 20th and early 21st century is discussed initially. The dimensions, components and metrics of energy security are reviewed in Chapter 2, including a novel definition of energy security that comprises physical availability, economic affordability, accessibility from a socio-political standpoint and environmental acceptability.
The role of wind and solar energy are highlighted, with emphasis on the social acceptance of renewable energy in an energy security context. Other energy security indexes are discussed, focusing on sustainability and renewable energy.
Denmark, Germany, China, Russia and the US are examined as case studies that help us to understand the transition to renewable energy in the context of co-operation among states.
Advancement in energy policies has stimulated the adoption of instruments used in the renewable energy sector and climate change mitigation. Renewable energy policies play a crucial role in the abatement of greenhouse gas emissions, by providing access to modern energy and energy security by diversifying energy supply. For example, and as described in Chapter 4, there are numerous policies developed in Ghana to improve the uptake of renewable energy for electricity production and to ensure efficient use of electrical energy. Some of the specific government policy objectives include reducing technical and commercial losses in power supply, supporting the modernization and expansion of the energy infrastructure to meet the growing demands, ensuring reliability and accelerating the development and utilization of renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies. These policies have defined targets and a defined period in which to be implemented. In the current book, a comparative analysis is made with South Africa’s and Morocco’s renewable energy sectorial policies on the basis of various adopted strategies to their achievements and what policy makers in Ghana can learn from that.
Despite the enormous advantages associated with biogas technology, the level of awareness and perception remains low. It is therefore important to increase awareness of the technology at household level in critical energy regions, such as South Africa. In Chapter 3, a case study is made for Limpopo Province of South Africa, where 200 households are sampled of which 72 households use biogas digesters and 128 are without digesters. Primary data collection is obtained with the use of open and closed-ended questionnaires. The study recommends interventions through more elaborate awareness and promotion programmes in disseminating the technology as well as provision of technical assistance, loans, credits and subsidies to households willing to adopt the technology. Also, an
forecast another example of a policy challenged region (Zimbabwe) for its energy consumption by 2030. A time series data from 1980 to 2012 is utilised alongside econometric techniques to explore the causal relationship amongst the variables under review. The stationary test reveals the integration of all the data series of interest of order one. The autoregressive integrated moving average model forecasts Zimbabwe’s 2030 energy demand around 0.183 Quadrillion BTU against the current 0.174 Quadrillion Btu. The empirical finding is indicative for policy and decision makers who design the energy policy framework geared towards achieving the universal access to modern energy technologies in Zimbabwe.
Fundamental and applied research on renewable energy is actively supported both in terms of making significant contributions to the scientific development, address- ing the issue of energy independence and security of different countries. Detailed analyses of research findings in the fields of thermoelectricity, photoelectricity and bioenergy are made in Chapter 6 for two typical East European countries: Poland and Ukraine. This is to find regularities in the development of these areas in each state and to determine the prospects for joint research. Comparison of the state of research in these countries is an example of the analysis of the situation at the EU borders and may answer questions related to sustainable development, the mass transition to renewable energy, the refusal to use fossil fuels and nuclear power plants. Particular research is considered in each state and the possibility of organis- ing joint scientific research in order to mutually enhance the scientific potential is demonstrated.
The feasibility analysis on the different challenges in deployment of renewable energy is made to understand the global sustainability factors and envisage their future. The emphasis on cost and efficiency for technological advancement is the basic element for mass adaptation of renewable energy. At the same time, huge available resources, favourable economies and large social-economic benefits attract major parts of the globe to the transition from conventional to renewable energy. A typical example of such a scenario is noticeable in the case of India. In Chapter 7, the authors have explored the major options and barriers towards the deployment of different renewable energies in India, which will act as a catalyst to achieve India’s dream renewable energy target of 175 GW by 2022.
Economic development experienced by the world during the last two decades has led to a strong growth in demand for energy in the transport sector, with major developments in the different modes of transport. Currently, with facing the global energy challenges, the transport sector is still heavily dependent on petroleum products – a major strategic global issue. For instance, the aviation industry consumes about 177 billion litres of kerosene, moving more than 25,000 aircraft and 6 billion passengers. To achieve that, in 2015, the civil aviation industry generated about 781 million tons of CO2 corresponding to 2% all anthropogenic emissions of this greenhouse gas and all required energy is derived from fossil sources. To reduce the environmental impact, we must create alternative energy sources to bring energy security and to do this, it is paramount to increase research and development of viable production of bio-kerosene. The authors aim to present some varieties of biomass and its derivatives being studied as raw material for new aviation fuels such as ethanol, butanol, fatty acid methyl esters and fossil oils in Chapter 12.
brief overview on some alternatives in the automotive engineering applications, such as electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and technology of fuel cell electric vehicles in Chapter 9. There will also be a focus on hydrogen technologies for both stationary and mobility/transportation applications. Hydrogen production from sustainable resources for the generation of pure and low-cost hydrogen is described in Chapter 13.
Coal fly ash (CFA) is generated during combustion of coal for energy production.
Many studies are based on its utilization as the most abundant, cheap aluminosilicate industrial residue, which is recognized as a risk for the environment and human health. The authors have given a focus on the origin of CFA, its chemical properties and its catalytic application for biodiesel production. The aluminosilicate nature and the presence of rare earth elements make CFA suitable for different adsorption, catalytic and extraction processes for obtaining valuable products including alternative fuels and pure elements. However, the presence of toxic elements is a potential environmental problem, which should be solved to avoid soil, water and air pollution. The proposed modification methods and properties are discussed in Chapter 10. Also, carbonization is the art of reinventing waste biomass into a carbon/energy rich charcoal. It therefore adopts the principles of renewable energy. Biochar production is not a new process, but the renewed interest in it with biomass is a great opportunity for commercial and scientific applications. The carbon can be extracted from the produced char to form the precious graphite and graphene. In Chapter 11, the authors provide a general overview about slow pyrolysis processes including carbonization and the torrefaction process, which is a mild carbonization process. Different carbonization processes and methodologies that vary in the process parameters will be addressed and the most promising ones are highlighted.
Bioplastics and bioinspired nanocomposites with nanoscale reinforcements are used in a broad range of applications, such as biomedical, electronics, durable goods and packaging materials. Several drawbacks of conventional materials such as hydrophilicity, low-heat deflection, poor conductivity and barrier properties can be efficiently overcome using biohybrid nanomaterials. Nano-reinforcements in composite materials deliver remarkably improved properties such as a decrease in hydrophilicity and increase in mechanical properties as compared with a neat biopolymer, which fails to exhibit these properties on its own. In Chapter 8 the authors present the recent trends towards nano-functional materials, renewable materials that are being applied to produce nano-bio-composites and their applications, especially in the biomedical and healthcare sector. This emerging concept will enhance the scope of nanohybrid materials for sustainable product development with improved properties than previously seen in synthetic polymer- based or natural polymer-based materials.
The nexus between the intermittent renewable energy supply and the current demand requires advanced control strategies. Chapter 14 deals with power control of a PV/wind system for power generation with dynamic input dataset. The main contribution of this chapter is that it is the first time using real data from a PV/
wind system and observing the system reliability with real-time simulation results.
The proposed system consists of a doubly-fed induction based wind generator, rotor-side converter, grid-side converter, solar arrays, dc-dc converter, grid and
with input datasets. The modelling and the validation of the operation of the system and its controllers is done using PSCAD/EMTDC.
The growing demand for renewable energy sources, in particular for solar tech- nologies, requires more detailed studies to increase power and efficiency. Among them, thermoelectric energy conversion is a well-known technology used for decades including: solar thermal generators (STEG), radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG), automotive thermoelectric generators (ATG) and thermoelectric generators (TEG). Chapter 15 demonstrates that the thermoelectric effect (Seebeck effect) can be used to harness the thermal energy retained in photovoltaic panels to increase their overall efficiency with its direct conversion into electrical energy and vice versa. It is also observed that solar radiation can be converted directly into electric energy, as in photovoltaic modules, or can be converted directly into electricity, as in thermoelectric modules. It is emphasised that although the energy conversion by thermoelectric effect still has low electrical efficiency, this source is characterised by a high degree of reliability, low maintenance, appreciable durability, absence of moving parts and it allows the generation of electric energy through recovery of the thermal energy from several industrial processes. Various solar air conditioning technologies such as solar PV, absorption, desiccant and adsorption cooling systems are overviewed in Chapter 16. It includes feasibility and comparative analysis of numerous standalone and hybrid configurations of solar cooling systems that have been investigated in the past. In addition, recent develop- ments in the use of solar energy as a regeneration source to dehumidify desiccant wheels in different applications are also discussed. Details of system technologies and climate-based performance comparison in terms of various performance factors e.g., COPth, Q latent, Q sensible, COPsolar , SF, PES and Ƞcollector for solar assisted configurations are highlighted. It is observed that hybridization of solar solid desiccant systems results in a more efficient and cost-effective cooling system as latent and sensible loads are treated independently, especially when the regenera- tion process of the desiccant wheel is integrated with solar energy. In Chapter 17, the authors have considered the thermal and hydraulic analysis of transfer media motion mode in the flat solar collector. The authors have substantiated the thermal and hydraulic parameters of the flat plate solar collector. Solar flat plate collector’s heat absorbing tubes hydraulic analysis has shown that using the heat transfer standard size might be located in a pipeline length of 2.5 times more than of the collector’s body.
Offshore renewable technologies hold the potential to satisfy a considerable amount of the global energy demand in the coming years. In Chapter 18, the main sources of renewable energy related to the oceans (waves, tides and offshore winds) will be characterized and discussed, with reference to the challenges related in their use. Thus, the main devices capable of exploiting these resources will be presented.
Their working principle, together with operational and technological requirements will be described, highlighting strengths and weaknesses of each technology and providing examples of past and current experiences. Elements of project management, as well as environmental impact and public perception, will be included. In Chapter 19, a wind speed analysis is made using the Signal Processing Technique. The formation of wind energy and the necessary stages to produce electrical energy are discussed. The hourly wind speed data of the last ten years of Istanbul was studied and analysed using the Fourier method. The data obtained
brief overview on some alternatives in the automotive engineering applications, such as electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and technology of fuel cell electric vehicles in Chapter 9. There will also be a focus on hydrogen technologies for both stationary and mobility/transportation applications. Hydrogen production from sustainable resources for the generation of pure and low-cost hydrogen is described in Chapter 13.
Coal fly ash (CFA) is generated during combustion of coal for energy production.
Many studies are based on its utilization as the most abundant, cheap aluminosilicate industrial residue, which is recognized as a risk for the environment and human health. The authors have given a focus on the origin of CFA, its chemical properties and its catalytic application for biodiesel production. The aluminosilicate nature and the presence of rare earth elements make CFA suitable for different adsorption, catalytic and extraction processes for obtaining valuable products including alternative fuels and pure elements. However, the presence of toxic elements is a potential environmental problem, which should be solved to avoid soil, water and air pollution. The proposed modification methods and properties are discussed in Chapter 10. Also, carbonization is the art of reinventing waste biomass into a carbon/energy rich charcoal. It therefore adopts the principles of renewable energy. Biochar production is not a new process, but the renewed interest in it with biomass is a great opportunity for commercial and scientific applications. The carbon can be extracted from the produced char to form the precious graphite and graphene. In Chapter 11, the authors provide a general overview about slow pyrolysis processes including carbonization and the torrefaction process, which is a mild carbonization process. Different carbonization processes and methodologies that vary in the process parameters will be addressed and the most promising ones are highlighted.
Bioplastics and bioinspired nanocomposites with nanoscale reinforcements are used in a broad range of applications, such as biomedical, electronics, durable goods and packaging materials. Several drawbacks of conventional materials such as hydrophilicity, low-heat deflection, poor conductivity and barrier properties can be efficiently overcome using biohybrid nanomaterials. Nano-reinforcements in composite materials deliver remarkably improved properties such as a decrease in hydrophilicity and increase in mechanical properties as compared with a neat biopolymer, which fails to exhibit these properties on its own. In Chapter 8 the authors present the recent trends towards nano-functional materials, renewable materials that are being applied to produce nano-bio-composites and their applications, especially in the biomedical and healthcare sector. This emerging concept will enhance the scope of nanohybrid materials for sustainable product development with improved properties than previously seen in synthetic polymer- based or natural polymer-based materials.
The nexus between the intermittent renewable energy supply and the current demand requires advanced control strategies. Chapter 14 deals with power control of a PV/wind system for power generation with dynamic input dataset. The main contribution of this chapter is that it is the first time using real data from a PV/
wind system and observing the system reliability with real-time simulation results.
The proposed system consists of a doubly-fed induction based wind generator, rotor-side converter, grid-side converter, solar arrays, dc-dc converter, grid and
with input datasets. The modelling and the validation of the operation of the system and its controllers is done using PSCAD/EMTDC.
The growing demand for renewable energy sources, in particular for solar tech- nologies, requires more detailed studies to increase power and efficiency. Among them, thermoelectric energy conversion is a well-known technology used for decades including: solar thermal generators (STEG), radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG), automotive thermoelectric generators (ATG) and thermoelectric generators (TEG). Chapter 15 demonstrates that the thermoelectric effect (Seebeck effect) can be used to harness the thermal energy retained in photovoltaic panels to increase their overall efficiency with its direct conversion into electrical energy and vice versa. It is also observed that solar radiation can be converted directly into electric energy, as in photovoltaic modules, or can be converted directly into electricity, as in thermoelectric modules. It is emphasised that although the energy conversion by thermoelectric effect still has low electrical efficiency, this source is characterised by a high degree of reliability, low maintenance, appreciable durability, absence of moving parts and it allows the generation of electric energy through recovery of the thermal energy from several industrial processes. Various solar air conditioning technologies such as solar PV, absorption, desiccant and adsorption cooling systems are overviewed in Chapter 16. It includes feasibility and comparative analysis of numerous standalone and hybrid configurations of solar cooling systems that have been investigated in the past. In addition, recent develop- ments in the use of solar energy as a regeneration source to dehumidify desiccant wheels in different applications are also discussed. Details of system technologies and climate-based performance comparison in terms of various performance factors e.g., COPth, Q latent, Q sensible, COPsolar , SF, PES and Ƞcollector for solar assisted configurations are highlighted. It is observed that hybridization of solar solid desiccant systems results in a more efficient and cost-effective cooling system as latent and sensible loads are treated independently, especially when the regenera- tion process of the desiccant wheel is integrated with solar energy. In Chapter 17, the authors have considered the thermal and hydraulic analysis of transfer media motion mode in the flat solar collector. The authors have substantiated the thermal and hydraulic parameters of the flat plate solar collector. Solar flat plate collector’s heat absorbing tubes hydraulic analysis has shown that using the heat transfer standard size might be located in a pipeline length of 2.5 times more than of the collector’s body.
Offshore renewable technologies hold the potential to satisfy a considerable amount of the global energy demand in the coming years. In Chapter 18, the main sources of renewable energy related to the oceans (waves, tides and offshore winds) will be characterized and discussed, with reference to the challenges related in their use. Thus, the main devices capable of exploiting these resources will be presented.
Their working principle, together with operational and technological requirements will be described, highlighting strengths and weaknesses of each technology and providing examples of past and current experiences. Elements of project management, as well as environmental impact and public perception, will be included. In Chapter 19, a wind speed analysis is made using the Signal Processing Technique. The formation of wind energy and the necessary stages to produce electrical energy are discussed. The hourly wind speed data of the last ten years of Istanbul was studied and analysed using the Fourier method. The data obtained
are many challenges to incorporating wind generation into urban areas. These include planning issues besides visual impacts. As to integration, there is a need for a combined approach that considers wind energy harvesting besides these issues. In Chapter 20, a multidisciplinary approach is made to fill the gap between the architectural design and the wind engineering processes. The chapter presents design strategies from the literature to integrate wind energy to tall buildings using computational fluid dynamics simulation.
Solar energy increases its popularity in many fields, from buildings, food productions to power plants and other industries, due to its clean and renewable properties. To eliminate its intermittence feature, thermal energy storage is vital for efficient and stable operation of solar energy utilization systems. It is an effective way of decoupling the energy demand and generation, while playing an important role on smoothing their fluctuations. In Chapter 21, various types of thermal energy storage technologies are summarized and compared, including the latest studies on thermal energy storage materials and heat transfer enhancements. Then, the most up-to-date developments and applications of various thermal energy storage options in solar energy systems are summarized, with an emphasis on the material selections, system integrations, operational characteristics, performance assessments and technological comparisons. This chapter will be a useful
resource for relevant researchers, engineers, policy-makers, technology users and engineering students in the field.
More contemporary technology must offer more exceptional energy-efficient applications at a lower cost. New technology must also have an ability to generate electric power from the conversion of wasted heat. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and their applications have gained momentum for their ability to use waste thermal energy. As shown in Chapter 22, TEG has demonstrated its efficiency and how it can offer increased potential by adding an MPPT algorithm to increase the power flow while decreasing the cost of operation. The limitations can be offset using lower-cost manufacturing materials and automated systems in the TEG units.
The rapid increase in demand for energy utilization is an unavoidable fact. Such large demand cannot be satisfied by the conventional power sources alone.
Sustainable power sources (for example, solar and wind turbine-based energy systems) are the most effective and both economically and environmentally feasible. The hybrid renewable energy system is a recent concept in the field of sustainable development, which joins at least two renewable power sources like a wind turbine, solar module and other inexhaustible sources such as ocean energy, fuel cell etc. In Chapter 23, a survey is made on efficient hybridization of two sustainable sources such as solar modules and a wind farm into a perfect joined stage that can make this system more dependable and monetarily possible to operate. Simulation of a micro-grid connected renewable energy system is presented in Chapter 24, which comprises of a wind turbine based on doubly fed induction, photovoltaic and fuel cell generators. A hydrogen tank and water electrolyser are facilitated as long-term storage, and battery bank is utilized as a short-term storage. A global control strategy and an energy management strategy are proposed for the overall system. The effectiveness of this contribution is verified through computer simulations and satisfactory results are obtained.
envisaged that this book will facilitate the formulation of new energy technolo- gies, such as alternative fuels, effective solar energy harnessing techniques and approaches to facilitating renewable energy on a broader range of applications. The development and implementation of such technologies will support green economic growth, protect the environment, ensure energy security and create new jobs.
Dr. Mansour Al Qubeissi Coventry University, United Kingdom Dr. Ahmad El-kharouf University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Hakan Serhad Soyhan Professor, Sakarya University, Turkey
are many challenges to incorporating wind generation into urban areas. These include planning issues besides visual impacts. As to integration, there is a need for a combined approach that considers wind energy harvesting besides these issues. In Chapter 20, a multidisciplinary approach is made to fill the gap between the architectural design and the wind engineering processes. The chapter presents design strategies from the literature to integrate wind energy to tall buildings using computational fluid dynamics simulation.
Solar energy increases its popularity in many fields, from buildings, food productions to power plants and other industries, due to its clean and renewable properties. To eliminate its intermittence feature, thermal energy storage is vital for efficient and stable operation of solar energy utilization systems. It is an effective way of decoupling the energy demand and generation, while playing an important role on smoothing their fluctuations. In Chapter 21, various types of thermal energy storage technologies are summarized and compared, including the latest studies on thermal energy storage materials and heat transfer enhancements. Then, the most up-to-date developments and applications of various thermal energy storage options in solar energy systems are summarized, with an emphasis on the material selections, system integrations, operational characteristics, performance assessments and technological comparisons. This chapter will be a useful
resource for relevant researchers, engineers, policy-makers, technology users and engineering students in the field.
More contemporary technology must offer more exceptional energy-efficient applications at a lower cost. New technology must also have an ability to generate electric power from the conversion of wasted heat. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and their applications have gained momentum for their ability to use waste thermal energy. As shown in Chapter 22, TEG has demonstrated its efficiency and how it can offer increased potential by adding an MPPT algorithm to increase the power flow while decreasing the cost of operation. The limitations can be offset using lower-cost manufacturing materials and automated systems in the TEG units.
The rapid increase in demand for energy utilization is an unavoidable fact. Such large demand cannot be satisfied by the conventional power sources alone.
Sustainable power sources (for example, solar and wind turbine-based energy systems) are the most effective and both economically and environmentally feasible. The hybrid renewable energy system is a recent concept in the field of sustainable development, which joins at least two renewable power sources like a wind turbine, solar module and other inexhaustible sources such as ocean energy, fuel cell etc. In Chapter 23, a survey is made on efficient hybridization of two sustainable sources such as solar modules and a wind farm into a perfect joined stage that can make this system more dependable and monetarily possible to operate. Simulation of a micro-grid connected renewable energy system is presented in Chapter 24, which comprises of a wind turbine based on doubly fed induction, photovoltaic and fuel cell generators. A hydrogen tank and water electrolyser are facilitated as long-term storage, and battery bank is utilized as a short-term storage. A global control strategy and an energy management strategy are proposed for the overall system. The effectiveness of this contribution is verified through computer simulations and satisfactory results are obtained.
envisaged that this book will facilitate the formulation of new energy technolo- gies, such as alternative fuels, effective solar energy harnessing techniques and approaches to facilitating renewable energy on a broader range of applications. The development and implementation of such technologies will support green economic growth, protect the environment, ensure energy security and create new jobs.
Dr. Mansour Al Qubeissi Coventry University, United Kingdom Dr. Ahmad El-kharouf University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Hakan Serhad Soyhan Professor, Sakarya University, Turkey
Economic and Regional
Challenges
Economic and Regional
Challenges
For Sustainable Development:
Future Trends in Renewable
Energy and Enabling Technologies
Mustafa Seckin Salvarli and Huseyin Salvarli
Abstract
Energy demand in the world is nowadays growing further out of limits of installable generation capacity. Therefore, future energy demands should be met and improved efficiently and securely. Energy solutions should be supported by uti- lizing renewable energy sources. At present, the contribution of renewable energy to the world primary energy is not high to meet the primary energy and electricity supplies. Both developed and developing nations will necessarily continue to rely on fossil fuels in the coming decades. In developing countries, the situation is more inconvenient than that for developed countries. Many developing countries have been apparently trying to restructure their energy sectors. It seems that it is dif- ficult to realize innovations. Cost, market share and policy are the main barriers for the development of renewable energy. In the strategy plans of many countries, the sustainable development in relation to the parameters such as economic, social and industrial is supported by their energy policies. New enabling technologies related to renewable energies will also help to reduce environmental costs, and thus the energy systems will be operated as both securely and economically without envi- ronmental problems. New renewable energy markets are surely required in both the wholesale and retail markets.
Keywords: renewable energy, sustainable development, environment, energy mix, trends, strategies, enabling technologies
1. Introduction
The demand for energy increases enormously. As indicated in [1], the industrial countries have 28% of the world’s population, and they consume 77% of the world energy production. It is expected that today’s world population will increase 1.26 times to reach 9.7 billion in 2050. Most of the world’s population which include 90%
of the population growth belong to the developing countries. By 2050, although the developed countries will be adopting more effective energy conservation policies, their energy consumption will not increase. However, in the developing countries, people generally have an aim to construct their own electricity-generating facilities.
According to the data given in Ref. [2], about 75% of the final energy demand and 67% of the electricity supply in 2016 will be met by the fossil fuels. As a basic energy resource in the world, coal is very important, and it is expected that its usage will be increased by 27% over 20 years.
For Sustainable Development:
Future Trends in Renewable
Energy and Enabling Technologies
Mustafa Seckin Salvarli and Huseyin Salvarli
Abstract
Energy demand in the world is nowadays growing further out of limits of installable generation capacity. Therefore, future energy demands should be met and improved efficiently and securely. Energy solutions should be supported by uti- lizing renewable energy sources. At present, the contribution of renewable energy to the world primary energy is not high to meet the primary energy and electricity supplies. Both developed and developing nations will necessarily continue to rely on fossil fuels in the coming decades. In developing countries, the situation is more inconvenient than that for developed countries. Many developing countries have been apparently trying to restructure their energy sectors. It seems that it is dif- ficult to realize innovations. Cost, market share and policy are the main barriers for the development of renewable energy. In the strategy plans of many countries, the sustainable development in relation to the parameters such as economic, social and industrial is supported by their energy policies. New enabling technologies related to renewable energies will also help to reduce environmental costs, and thus the energy systems will be operated as both securely and economically without envi- ronmental problems. New renewable energy markets are surely required in both the wholesale and retail markets.
Keywords: renewable energy, sustainable development, environment, energy mix, trends, strategies, enabling technologies
1. Introduction
The demand for energy increases enormously. As indicated in [1], the industrial countries have 28% of the world’s population, and they consume 77% of the world energy production. It is expected that today’s world population will increase 1.26 times to reach 9.7 billion in 2050. Most of the world’s population which include 90%
of the population growth belong to the developing countries. By 2050, although the developed countries will be adopting more effective energy conservation policies, their energy consumption will not increase. However, in the developing countries, people generally have an aim to construct their own electricity-generating facilities.
According to the data given in Ref. [2], about 75% of the final energy demand and 67% of the electricity supply in 2016 will be met by the fossil fuels. As a basic energy resource in the world, coal is very important, and it is expected that its usage will be increased by 27% over 20 years.
