p a r a l l a x 2008, vol. 14, no. 4, 4 2 - 5 4
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The Omnipresent Eye of the Judge - Juridical Evidence in Albrecht Durer and Lucas Cranach the Elder
1C l a u d i a Blumle
In English, the t e r m evidence stands for the p r o o f to be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d in a court of law. Such linguistic custom already indicates the extent to w h i c h juridical practice has b e e n a n d continues to be d e t e r m i n e d by a rhetoric of seeing.2 In the correlation of speaking a n d seeing, the court b e c o m e s distinguishable as a theatrical space in w h i c h the evidence is referred to the vanishing point of an i m m e d i a t e visibility thereby t u r n i n g the c o u r t r o o m into a stage for the establishment of the truth to take place u n d e r the eye of the j u d g e . T h e following discussion is c o n c e r n e d with the historical beginnings of this constellation in the fifteenth century, intending to show, b y the examples of Albrecht Diirer's engraving 6b/ Iustitiae a n d Lucas C r a n a c h the Elder's p a i n t i n g The Judgement of Solomon, the significant contribution of images to the d e v e l o p m e n t of this space of juridical visibility.
I
E r w i n Panofsky considers the c o p p e r e n g r a v i n g Sol Iustitiae (Christ as t h e ' S u n of Righteousness'), d a t e d a r o u n d 1 4 9 8 / 9 9 , a w o r k of art ' w h i c h in spite of its small size (79 x 107 m m ) belongs to Diirer's m o s t impressive c r e a t i o n s '3 (Figure 1). T h e e n g r a v i n g shows a fierce looking lion w i t h a wide-eyed m a l e figure sitting o n its back. A m a s k of flames p r o t r u d i n g f r o m the flesh f r a m e s the black points of the figure's pupils a n d t h e circular eyes w h o s e r a d i a n c e is b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d by a c o r o n a a n d a d o u b l e halo. W i t h the m a s k m a d e u p of t h r e e t o n g u e s of flame a n d oddly g r o w n t o g e t h e r with the nose a n d the eyes d r a f t e d in j u s t a few lines, the e n g r a v i n g illustrates the topic of looking w h i c h m o r e o v e r consists in t h e direct c o n f r o n t a t i o n of t h e viewer with the fierce look of t h e lion. Since t h e sitting figure's h e a d is t u r n e d to t h e right, the direction of its gaze seems to b e focussed o n a p o i n t outside of the p i c t u r e . W i t h i n t h e m a l e figure, w h i c h takes u p almost the entire p i c t u r e f r a m e , a c e n t r e d verticality is c r e a t e d starting at t h e t o p of t h e foot a n d t h e b l a d e of grass a n d c o n t i n u i n g f r o m t h e tail of the stole to t h e r a d i a t i n g h e a d , thus dividing t h e p i c t u r e in t w o a n d c o n v e y i n g to the c o m p o s i t i o n t h e aspect of e q u i l i b r i u m a n d disequilibrium.
T h e semicircular, richly d r a p e d stole u n d e r l i n e s t h e slight d i a g o n a l of the a r m ' s m o v e m e n t a n d t h e disequilibrium it creates b e t w e e n the sword p o i n t i n g straight u p in a parallel to t h e p i c t u r e m a r g i n a n d the e m p t y p a i r of scales with its f r o n t p a n inclined d o w n w a r d s . T h e topic of the delivery of j u d g e m e n t , w h i c h in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e topic of seeing u n c a n n i l y manifests itself in t h e depiction of the a n i m a l a n d
parallax
ISSN 1353-4645 print/ISSN 1460-700X online © 2008 Taylor & Francis http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/13534640802416751
Originalveröffentlichung in: Parallax 14 (2008), No. 4, S. 42-54
Figure 1. Albrecht Durer, Sol Justitiae, 1 4 9 8 / 9 9 . Etching. 7.9 x 10.7cm. The Metropolitan Museum, New York.
t h e flame mask, is related to a n exceedingly c o m p l e x i c o n o g r a p h y displaying p a g a n - a n t i q u e , astrological, C h r i s t i a n a n d j u r i d i c a l elements.
It is Erwin Panofsky's merit to have decoded the allegoric pictorial invention 'combining Christian a n d pagan-antique ideas, planetary god a n d the Christian notion of G o d ' .4
Diirer's direct source of inspiration is believed to have been the Repertorium morale written by the Benedictine Petrus Berchorius.'1 T h e correlation Sol-Christus is already evident in J o h a n n e s Virdung's woodcarving for the Latin A l m a n a c of the year 1495 (Figure 2). In Virdung's depiction, however, the two figures are standing next to each other, while in Diirer's engraving they are o n e superimposed o n the other a n d thereby unified in one figure. R o m a n coins are considered to have served as the antecedents of the pictorial relationship Sol-Christus: o n t h e m the respective E m p e r o r - p r o m i n e n t examples are
Figure 2. Johannes Virdung, 'Christ and Sol', Almanach for the Year 1495 (detail). Woodcut. Picture 9 8 in Friedrich Teja Bach, Struktur una1 Erscheinung: Untersuchungen zu Durers graphischer Kunst (Berlin:
Gebruder Mann, 1996), p. 106.
Probus, Aurelius and Constantine - is shown in profile next to the haloed Sun G o d a n d endowed with a facial resemblance to the divine prototype (Figure 3). Ernst Kantorowicz demonstrated by way of the p h e n o m e n o n of dual images that it was only thanks to this pictorial effectiveness of geminatio, a 'duplication' in the sense of Kantorowicz,6 that the E m p e r o r could b e c o m e geminatapersona - ' h u m a n by nature a n d divine by grace'.7
In Christian hermeneutics, the geminatio explained by e x a m p l e of the R o m a n coins of the third a n d fourth century, is typologically t u r n e d a r o u n d . A c c o r d i n g to Friedrich O h l y ,8 typology, although a n c h o r e d in the exegesis of the Scripture, refers in its interpretative m o d e of t h o u g h t also to extra-biblical objects f r o m a n t i q u e philosophy, lyrics or historical secular stories. As a Christian doctrine w h i c h in so d o i n g nonetheless contributed to a n antique tradition, typology allegorizes n o t only P r o m e t h e u s , Plato a n d other figures, b u t m o r e o v e r , regards t h e m as prefigurations of Christ.9 In the fine arts this m o d e of t h o u g h t manifests itself as a system of similarities. ' A n a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the two sides by assimilations raising the c o m m o n aspects b e y o n d the discontinuities a n d leading to a n interpenetration of type a n d a n t i t y p e '1 0 is so c o m m o n in the fine arts 'that in a p p e a r a n c e type a n d antitype a r e all b u t synthesized'.1 1 T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is illustrated by a series of well-known Figure3. Konstantin and Sol invictus, Gold-Solidus. paintings a n d drawings by L e o n a r d o d a Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Picture 3 2 e from • • • r T .
r . „ , . ~. . \ • Vinci c o m b i n i n g the aspects ol o h n the
Ernst Kantorowicz, Die zwei Korper des Konigs: ° r
Eine Studie zur politischen Theologie des B aPt l s t a n d Bacchus. While the p a i n t i n g Mittelalters (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1992 no. 332e). of 1509 in the L o u v r e clearly shows J o h n
the Baptist, the male figure in the drawing John-Bacchus of 1513 with its antiquating nakedness a n d the tree tops veiling its face, includes elements of a Bacchus that were to e m e r g e even m o r e d o m i n a n t l y in the painting of 1 5 1 3 - 1 5 . H e r e , the figure wears a leopard hide and a wine leaf corona in its hair while the sign of the cross has disappeared f r o m the staff.1 2 L e o n a r d o d a Vinci presents a n antique a n d a biblical type 'synthesized in a way that before the non-spiritual eye they conceal themselves one in the o t h e r ' .1 3 O h l y describes the correlation of old a n d new, of extra-biblical a n d biblical as ' Ineinanderschau'. T h i s 'looking of one into the other' is possible not only iconographically because of interpretable attributes, characteristics a n d symbols b u t also because of the picture's specific effectiveness which rests u p o n the simultaneous perception of elements the m i n d reads either separately or linearly. R e f e r r i n g to L u c a n , Panofsky calls such a synthesis a numen mixtum, a m i x e d divinity synthesized f r o m two opposing divinities.1 5
W i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of this interpretation of Sol-Christus the scale presents a p r o b l e m f r o m a n iconographic point of view given t h a t Christ as J u d g e of the W o r l d h a d always bee"n depicted with a white lily a n d a sword. Diirer's portrayals of the Last Judgement i n c o r p o r a t e these Christian attributes taken f r o m the Gospel of St. J o h n while scale a n d sword are ascribed to the A r c h Angel M i c h a e l or the female personification of Justitia}^ H e n c e , the question is w h e t h e r the engraving Sol Iustitiae represents a numen mixtum or a n allegory. D o e s the picture c o m m u n i c a t e the delivery of j u d g e m e n t as a n abstract idea or as a salvation-historical event? K u r t R a t h e underlined in 1927 t h a t Diirer succeeded in synthesizing 'the late medieval a n d antique perception of justice in a d r e a d f u l pictorial face of his very own quality'.1 7 T h o m a s W u r t e n b e r g e r also placed the engraving Sol Iustitiae within the m o r e comprehensive legal context of Diirer's work c o r p u s .1 8 Within the Sol-Christus typology the juridical aspect is relevant insofar as it is n o t the attributes but r a t h e r the reference to the judicial posture allowing for the figure to be interpreted as Christian J u d g e of the W o r l d . Since, however, the picture presents b o t h a coincidence of antique, astrological, Christian a n d allegoric i c o n o g r a p h y as well as a synopsis of all these different aspects in o n e single figure, it is impossible to d e t e r m i n e the d o m i n a t i n g aspect. In the case of d a Vinci's Bacchus-John the Baptist series, the two deities can still b e clearly distinguished thus allowing for a n interpretation f r o m a salvation-historical point of view a n d to read Bacchus as the prefiguration of J o h n . T h e m o m e n t , however, attributes of a n abstract prefiguration are introduced, the p r o b l e m becomes m o r e complex. For, it is the scale a n d sword which bestow u p o n 'the picture the allegory's higher degree of abstraction'.1 9 Besides the ideal personification of justice, the iconographic variant of Sol Iustitiae b e c o m e s even m o r e complicated because of its references to the judicial civil servant activity.
II
J u d g e s in the M i d d l e Ages w e r e still dispensed of h a v i n g to m a k e their o w n decision as is well d o c u m e n t e d b y S u s a n n e Lepsius. 'According to the belief at t h e time, the " t r u t h of the m a t t e r " immediately revealed itself b y divine intervention in the ordeal a n d the o a t h taking'.2 0 O n the metaphysical assumption t h a t G o d would decide legal matters by p e r f o r m i n g a miracle, it w a s possible ' f r o m the point of view of the m e m b e r s of court p a r t a k i n g in the trial to establish complete knowledge of the facts a n d administer
justice'."1 Given this trial by ordeal, it is therefore n o t possible to speak of a j u d g e in the m o d e r n sense b u t merely of a referee whose task it was to observe compliance with the rules d u r i n g the dispute, the oath taking a n d the ordeal. U p o n rediscovery a n d the n e w translation of R o m a n Law in the late Middle Ages, the j u d g e s a n d the j u d g e m e n t passing p o w e r were all of a sudden c o n f r o n t e d with the p r o b l e m of having to deliver j u d g e m e n t themselves. In Sol Iustitiae the newly e m e r g i n g judicial task is c o m b i n e d n o t only with the allegoric attributes of justice (sword a n d scale) b u t also with the astrological i c o n o g r a p h y of Sol:
F r o m time i m m e m o r i a l , Sol as the planetary god h a d also always been associated with the function of the j u d g e . Vettius Valens for instance introduces h i m as the trustee of j u d g e m e n t , a characterisation which ultimately goes back to the Babylonian S u n G o d . ,
T h i s n e w focus on the j u d g e in penal court proceedings is depicted a n d reflected in The Judgement of Solomon by Lucas G r a n a c h the Elder a n d his studio (Figures 5 a n d 6).2 3 In the painting which is dated a r o u n d 1537 a n d displays several similarities with Diirer's Sol Iustitiae, K i n g S o l o m o n is also s u r r o u n d e d by four fierce looking lions. H e r e , the lion refers first of all to a juridical iconography. Vital H u h n showed that 'already in early Christian times a n d particularly in Italy, the lion as a n e m b l e m of the court h a d evolved f r o m antique oriental perceptions of p o w e r ' .2 4 Since the times of Carolingian R u l e it stood for high justice (also k n o w n as the blood court).2 3 T h e c o l u m n s f r o m which death sentences w e r e proclaimed w e r e b o r n e by four c r o u c h i n g lions a n d called ' T a t t e r m a n n s a u l e n ' in B a m b e r g because their sight m a d e people 'dattrig', i.e. tremble with fear.2 6 A n d in the w o r d s of the T o w n C h a r t e r of Soest the j u d g e was 'to exercise his office as a grim faced lion'.2 7
Besides the lion's iconographic reference to the law, the posture - albeit m i r r o r e d - corresponds exactly to the one in Sol Iustitiae (Figures 4 a n d 5). K i n g S o l o m o n n o t only crosses his legs in a judicial m a n n e r , his h e a d is equally inclined to the side. W h e n looking at the p a i n t i n g as a whole, the royal j u d g e ' s t h r o n e is elevated to the image's vanishing point a n d thus positioned in a w a y that in o r d e r to be able to see the scene in the f o r e g r o u n d his h e a d has to turn to the left (Figure 6). T h e r e , two female figures are c o m p o s e d in opposition to one a n o t h e r : while the o n e with the d e a d child is kneeling, the other is standing with a living child in h e r arms. Positioned b e t w e e n t h e m is a h e n c h m a n r e a c h i n g out for the living child while d r a w i n g his sword to cut the child in two. C r a n a c h ' s p a i n t i n g relates the story of K i n g S o l o m o n as told in the O l d T e s t a m e n t ' s first Book of Kings w h e r e u p o n h e has to p r o n o u n c e j u d g e m e n t after h a v i n g h e a r d two different testimonies. H e is c o n f r o n t e d with two m o t h e r s w h o h a d given birth the s a m e night; w h e n one of the infants died the two w o m e n t u r n e d to the j u d g e e a c h of t h e m claiming that the living child was theirs. T h e K i n g then o r d e r e d a sword b r o u g h t to h i m a n d h e ruled: 'Divide the living child in two, and give half to the one, and half to the otherP2B W h e n o n e of the two w o m e n p l e a d e d with h i m n o t to kill the child while the other w a n t e d the child neither to belong to h e r n o r to the other, the K i n g was able to d e t e r m i n e that the f o r m e r was the real m o t h e r a n d all Israel saw 'that the w i s d o m of G o d w a s in him, to d o j u d g e m e n t ' .2 9 In the p a i n t i n g by C r a n a c h a n d his studio, this structure b e c o m e s particularly a p p a r e n t in the architecture a n d because of the different observer positions. T h e e x e m p l a r y case takes place in a theatrical court
r o o m u n d e r ' t h e eyes of S o l o m o n while t h e a u d i e n c e observes the two w o m e n ' s dispute f r o m a gallery f u r t h e r up. T h e r e m a r k a b l e s y m m e t r y of t h e p a i n t i n g c u l m i n a t e s in the figure of t h e royal j u d g e m o v e d to the b a c k g r o u n d a n d sitting on a t h r o n e d e c o r a t e d with t w o white c o l u m n s . T h e steep central perspective construction of t h e stage is r e i n f o r c e d b y the black d r a p e d c u r t a i n s a n d the stone b e n c h e s to t h e left a n d to t h e right of t h e t h r o n e . W i t h i n this self-contained space t h e judicial gaze takes a backseat while t h e scene c o m e s to the fore of the p a i n t i n g as a place of p u r e visibility. T h i s architecturally i n d u c e d viewing constellation displays a r e m a r k a b l e affinity to t h e o n e c o m m o n in R e n a i s s a n c e t h e a t r e w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to H a n s - C h r i s t i a n v o n H e r m a n n p r o d u c e s a scene b y m e a n s of perspective, curtains a n d lighting effects thus explicitly illustrating 'the unity of d r a m a f o r m u l a t e d by Aristotle as t h e u n i t y of o n e single scene (Schauplatz) constituted b y " o n e " single g a z e ' .3 0 T h e scene constituted b y ' o n e ' single g a z e perspectivizes t h e e v e n t to o n e single position w h i c h o n stage is taken b y t h e king a n d in t h e c o u r t r o o m b y t h e j u d g e as t h e singled o u t viewer a n d observer. I n the p a i n t i n g b y C r a n a c h the grey gallery wall a n d the king's s e p a r a t i o n f r o m t h e a u d i e n c e o n t h e gallery in the b a c k u n d e r l i n e the singling o u t o n stage of o n e single eye p o i n t - the' m o r e so as this sovereign eye p o i n t coincides with t h e perspective v a n i s h i n g point.
C r a n a c h ' s p a i n t i n g illustrates h o w the court is t r a n s f o r m e d to b e c o m e a stage. Like the circular a r r a n g e m e n t s in medieval theatre, ordeals, disputes or oath takings h a d n o stage in the sense that a self-contained space could b e observed f r o m o n e single sovereign eye point. Instead, the a u d i e n c e a r r a n g e d in a circle was able to w a t c h the legal plays f r o m different positions a n d observe c o m p l i a n c e with t h e rules a l o n g with the j u d g e . T h e m o m e n t , however, j u d g e m e n t is n o longer delivered b y G o d b u t b y the j u d g e , court proceedings require a central scenic place in t h e c o u r t r o o m within w h i c h the event is to unfold. T h e scene b e c o m e s t h e n e w show-place of a n o longer theological truth. T h e a u d i e n c e is h e n c e f o r t h positioned b e h i n d the sovereign judicial eye in o r d e r to p a r t a k e in it. F r o m a law historical p o i n t of view C r a n a c h ' s theatrical depiction of the K i n g ' s H a l l as the place of high justice continues a n antique tradition since prior to t h e division of the ancient r o u n d a n d self-contained a r e n a into a stage as scene, a n t i q u e d r a m a a n d jurisdiction w e r e directly correlated.3 1 U p o n rediscovery of the a n t i q u e t h e a t r e in the Renaissance, the c o u r t again b e c o m e s a t h e a t r e b y w a y of die scene. H e r e , as is s h o w n in C r a n a c h ' s painting, t h e crucial factor is the architec
tural partition in actors a n d audience, in active a n d passive participants, in those m o v i n g a n d those watching. For, t h e issue t h e j u d g e s w e r e c o n f r o n t e d with at t h e time, i.e. of h a v i n g to c o m e to a decision Figure 4. Albrecht Durer, Sol Justitiae, 1498/99. a n d a j u d g e m e n t , is tied to this theatrical Etching. 7.9x10.7cm. The Metropolitan Museum, distinction: ' T h o s e w a t c h i n g c a n also New York. decide. S t e p p i n g back, seeing a n d gaining
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LFigure 5. Lucas Cranach the Elder and workshop, The Judgement of Solomon (detail), 1537. Oil on poplar.
2 0 6 . 5 x 142 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preufiischer Kulturbesitz, Gemaldegalerie, 11.76. Photo: Jorg P.
Anders.
insight, g a i n i n g insight a n d d e c i d i n g f o r m a n interlinked series at t h e e n d of w h i c h w o u l d b e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t reflexive d e c i s i o n ' .3 2 It w a s n o t until t h e late M i d d l e Ages t h a t the j u d i c i a l gaze b e c a m e t h e decisive f a c t o r for t h e judicial e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e t r u t h . Since t h e j u d g e n o w passes j u d g e m e n t in G o d ' s stead, h e m u s t take o n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g divine g a z e in o r d e r to o c c u p y t h e place of a n absolute t r u t h .
Ill
In C r a n a c h ' s painting, the j u d g e ' s gaze a n d the people observing f r o m the gallery constitute precisely those observer positions that transfer the entire picture to a 'stage o n the stage' (Figure 6). While the scene as a place of p u r e visibility is m o v e d to the f o r e g r o u n d , the gaze of the j u d g e positioned in the vanishing point of the central perspective construction establishes the image's centre. His gaze does not, however, e n d in the vanishing point b u t constitutes at the s a m e time the starting point of the scene. Unless the j u d g e oversees the scene in the c o u r t r o o m , the a u d i e n c e - as depicted b e h i n d the tribune - will n o t be able to p a r t a k e in the unfolding of the truth. A n y u n f o l d i n g of the truth can only take place the m o m e n t the j u d g e as the sovereign of the juridical stage w a r r a n t s the context of the event o n stage a n d looks at it f r o m his elevated viewing position; only then will the a u d i e n c e as depicted on the t r i b u n e be able to p a r t a k e in the event. W i t h o u t the judicial eye taking in the scene a n d w i t h o u t it b e i n g o m n i p r e s e n t at all times d u r i n g the trial, the court c a n n o t b e a place for the establishment of the truth.
Diirer's Sol Iusliliae transfers these very conditions of juridical evidence to a picture by providing the m a l e j u d g e figure e n d o w e d with the attributes of justice a n d sitting o n a
Figure 6. Lucas Cranach the Elder and workshop, The Judgement of Solomon, 1537. Oil on poplar.
206.5 x 142 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, PreuBischer Kulturbesitz, Gemaldegalerie, 11.76. Photo:
Jorg P. Anders.
lion with the glow of a halo. Iconographically, Christ is depicted with a cross n i m b u s a n d Sol with a flaming c o r o n a a n d a n aureole. In the ancient sun cult the S u n G o d - called Helios by the Greek a n d Sol by the R o m a n s a n d c o m m o n l y p o r t r a y e d on coins, grave stones or in temples - was characterized by a halo of rays of light. T h i s halo could take on two geometrically different forms: it could be a n i m b u s in the f o r m of a r o u n d disc or circle or a c o r o n a 'in the f o r m of rays radiating f r o m the h e a d ' .3 3 T h e n i m b u s which in reference to the sun h a d originally b e e n reserved for the solar deity of light was soon transferred to demigods, heroes or personifications w h e r e a s the c o r o n a modelled on the sun c a m e to prevail in the depiction of rulers. In Diirer's engraving the two types are unified: the h a t c h e d c o r o n a is f r a m e d by a circular n i m b u s w h i c h is d r a w n in small parallel lines a n d doubled. As a result of the gradual tradition of the S u n G o d ' s n i m b u s a n d c o r o n a to Christian use, a clear distinction b e t w e e n Sol a n d Christ with regard to the halo is not possible. In Diirer's depiction the brilliance of the fiery solar deity w h o s e solar connotation was eventually displaced 'in favour of a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e c h a r a c t e r of light'3 4 a n d transferred onto Christ, n o w b e c o m e s t h e m a t i c in connection with seeing by linking the blazing flame m a s k of his Sol Iustitiae to the wide o p e n eyes. Panofsky noticed that a similar mask a p p e a r s o n the first sheet of Diirer's series on the Apocalypse of St. John33 titled Vision of the Seven Candlesticks (Figure 7):
But the face of the m a n is s u r r o u n d e d with a quivering halo, his eyes burst into flames like those of the S o n of M a n in the Vision of the Seven Candlesticks, a n d his features show a fierce, yet woeful expression, strangely akin to t h a t of his fantastic m o u n t .3 6
T h e a r g u m e n t that Sol Iustitiae represents Christ the J u d g e of the W o r l d gains in persuasiveness w h e n c o m p a r e d to the w o o d c a r v i n g f r o m the Apocalypse of the same year. In b o t h sheets the flaming rays m e r g e with the curly hair a n d the lines of the c o r o n a . In the case of Christ, the mask consisting of two parts a n d thus leaving the f r o w n e d front visible, a p p e a r s like a prolongation of the brows a n d the eye lashes with the two flames a d a p t i n g to the a l m o n d - s h a p e d eyes (Figure 7), while the d o m i n a t i n g f o r m s in Sol Iustitiae are circular a n d cross-shaped (Figure 8). T h e circular lines b r i n g
Figure 7. Albrecht Durer, 'The Vision of the Seven Candlesticks' from the first folio in The Apocalypse, 1498. Woodcut. 3 9 . 2 x 2 8 . 1 cm.
forth the black pupils, the shape of the eyes, the eyelids a n d the f o r m a t i o n of the flames inside the mask thereby a c c o m m o d a t i n g the circular eyes, w h e r e a s the tongues of the flames pointing in three directions result in a cross similar in depiction to the cross n i m b u s in V i r d u n g ' s w o o d c a r v i n g (see Figures 2 a n d 7).
Nikolaus von K u e s ascribes the significance of the divine gaze f r o m the picture as depicted by Diirer to its particularity a n d c o n c u r r e n t o m n i p r e s e n c e .3 7 A c c o r d i n g to J a c q u e s L a c a n , the function of the icon is also to b e seen in the fact that 'also the G o d it depicts gazes at it'. In Diirer, the resulting o m n i p r e s e n t gaze of G o d is m o r e o v e r tied to a m a s k so that in this depiction of the j u d g e of the world the pictorial characteristics of the gaze of the all seeing G o d a r e f u r t h e r reinforced. Unlike the divine gaze in the apocalyptic w o o d c a r v i n g Vision of the Seven Candlesticks, the gaze in Sol Iustitiae is n o t on the viewer of the picture b u t stays within the space of the picture a n d is focussed on the lower right-hand corner. T h i s focus on o n e particular point is of relevance as it prevents the p r o m i n e n c e of a gaze capable of i n c a r n a t i n g G o d ' s particular as well as o m n i p r e s e n t eye. Instead, because of the inclination of the h e a d a n d the direction of the' gaze towards one particular point, the position of the j u d g e corresponds exacdy to the o n e in C r a n a c h ' s painting. Diirer's pictorial invention is distinct f r o m the depiction of the divine J u d g e of the W o r l d b y passing - in J a c q u e s L a c a n ' s w o r d s - f r o m the gaze to the eye: T h e m o m e n t the gaze of the j u d g e is lowered a n d thus b e c o m e s the eye, the court r o o m shifts to a r o o m of visibility. T h e eye believing to b e ruling the events on stage by m e a n s of the eye p o i n t as in the central perspective construction, decorates itself with the gaze w h i c h in c o m b i n a t i o n with the light in the depictions of the Christian G o d a n d of the antique Sol/Helios shows itself as m o r e o m n i p r e s e n t .
In Sol Iustitiae the viewer is at eye level with the stooped lion whose h e a d is slightly raised. T h u s the impression is created t h a t the m a l e figure takes a n elevated observer position a n d could t h e r e b y b e looking d o w n o n the viewer. T h i s low horizontal line is reinforced by the haloed m a n w e a r i n g the fire m a s k whose chin is depicted f r o m below.
In C r a n a c h ' s painting the steep perspective construction of the r o o m a n d S o l o m o n ' s position in the image's u p p e r fifth also create an emphasis of the extremely high angle.
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Figure 8. Albrecht Diirer, Sol Justitiae (detail), 1 4 9 8 / 9 9 . Etching. 7 . 9 x 10.7 cm. The Metropolitan Museum, New York.
T h e elevated observer position is explained by the older practice of j u r i s p r u d e n c e for w h i c h such a position was indispensable; this is illustrated by the w o r d Le or Lee which in Middle H i g h G e r m a n n a m e d the hill of jurisdiction. For, in high justice the elevated place of the scaffold served the p u r p o s e of 'better visibility'.3 9 M o r e o v e r , since the c o m m o n use of the w o r d Lee was frequently mistaken with the similar s o u n d i n g w o r d Lewe (lion) the a n i m a l c a m e to symbolize high justice. In s u m m a r y it m a y therefore be said that not only the posture with the crossed legs b u t also the elevated observer position, as well as the focussing of the eyes on one particular point, are related to a judicial context thus b e a r i n g n o relationship to either a Christian or allegorical context.
T h e judicial view allowing for a n overview of the entire proceedings is at the same time physical a n d metaphysical because it always also takes the place of the divine gaze.
D u r e r uses the halo to transcend this seeing which constitutes the starting point of the juridical unfolding of the truth a n d m u s t f r o m n o w o n assume the newly e m e r g i n g activity of weighing a n d judging.
K a n t o r o w i c z was able to show b y w a y of the n i m b u s h o w the t e m p o r a l aspect of a c o n t i n u u m could b e bestowed on supra-individual ideas: 'In late antique art, we often find the halo bestowed o n such figures as might i m p e r s o n a t e a supra-individual idea'.
T h i s m a r k of distinction indicated that 'the figure was m e a n t to represent in every respect a c o n t i n u u m , s o m e t h i n g p e r m a n e n t a n d sempiternal b e y o n d the contingencies of time a n d c o r r u p t i o n ' .4 0 K a n t o r o w i c z stresses t h a t female figures mostly d e n o t e d as abstractions or personifications, as R o m a n provinces for instance, thereby received their ' s u p r a - t e m p o r a l c h a r a c t e r ' within the continuity of time. T h e same was true 'with regard to notions or virtues: Justitia or Prudentia, w h o were goddesses in p a g a n Antiquity w e r e m e a n t to represent forces perpetually effective'.4 1 T h i s dimension of time leads to the distinction between tempus, aetemitas a n d aevum, b e t w e e n transient earthly time, apocalyptic eternity a n d sempiternity. T h e halo t h e r e b y indicates a c h a n g e in the n a t u r e of time; it removes its b e a r e r 'scholastically speaking, f r o m tempus to aevum, f r o m T i m e to Sempiternity, at any rate to some c o n t i n u u m of time w i t h o u t e n d ' .4 2
IV
It should be recalled once m o r e that Sol Iustitiae is neither a n allegory of Justitia n o r a b o u t the solar zodiac sign of Leo; it is n o t a b o u t Christ, the apocalyptic J u d g e of the W o r l d , or the a n t i q u e S u n G o d Helios/Sol, n o r is it a b o u t a j u d g e exercising his office.
Instead, all of these aspects which also exist in single depictions are f o u n d in o n e picture, united in one haloed figure with flaming eyes. All of this, however, still leaves the question w h e t h e r it is a n allegory of a secular activity or a divine numen mixtum. T h i s question is of relevance as allegory a n d numen mixtum involve different time concepts. If Sol Iustitiae is r e a d typologically, i.e. Solas a prefiguration of Christ, the depiction would relate to a salvation-historical c o n c e p t of time a n d thus to a c o m i n g eternity relieved of space a n d time. If, o n the other h a n d , the picture is r e a d as an allegory, it would stand for a sempiternal abstract idea. T h e effect a n d p o w e r of the picture w h i c h rests in the simultaneous synthesis of different elements, concepts a n d ideas, is epitomized in Sol Iustitiae by being at the same time numen mixtum a n d allegory. In this cross-fading of numen mixtum a n d allegory, Sol Iustitiae on the one h a n d lends a n allegorical aspect to the activity of passing j u d g e m e n t by investing it with lion, scale a n d sword, a n d o n the
o t h e r it a p p l i e s a c o n t i n u i t y t o t h e j u d i c i a l o f f i c e b y c o m b i n i n g t h e h a l o w i t h t h e flame m a s k a n d t h e f o c u s s i n g o f t h e g a z e . A p a r t f r o m t h e o m n i p r e s e n t e y e o f t h e j u d g e in t h e e l e v a t e d o b s e r v e r p o s i t i o n , t h e l i o n a s t h e s y m b o l o f a l e r t n e s s is a l s o g i v e n a n a s p e c t o f c o n t i n u i t y a s h i s e y e s n e v e r c l o s e , n o t e v e n i n s l e e p . Sol Iustitiae u n i t e s t h e t w o c o n c e p t s i n o r d e r t o t y p o l o g i c a l l y c h a n g e t h e j u d i c i a l o f f i c e a n d t o i n v e s t it w i t h a n aevum a s w e l l a s w i t h t h e p o w e r h i t h e r t o r e s e r v e d t o t h e d i v i n e . T h e A p o c a l y p s e b e c o m e s a n i n n e r - w o r l d l y e v e n t a n d t h e i n n e r - w o r l d l y j u d i c i a l o f f i c e e n t e r s t h e r e a l m o f t h e h o l y ( o r o f t h e a n t i q u e G o d s , o f a s t r o l o g y a n d t h e a p o c a l y p s e ) . T h u s , i m m a n e n c e a n d t r a n s c e n d e n c e a r e c o r r e l a t e d i n a g e n u i n e l y p i c t o r i a l w a y . T h e j u d g e ' s v i e w , a s is s h o w n i n D i i r e r ' s Sol Iustitiae, is c o n s e q u e n t l y a n u n d i s g u i s e d a n d d i r e c t s e e i n g g o i n g b e y o n d t h e m e r e a n d c o n t i n g e n t p r e s e n c e . A s a m e t a p h y s i c a l v i e w , it d e t e r m i n e s i n s t e a d t h e s t a g e o n w h i c h t h e t r u t h u n f o l d s a n d t h u s a l s o t h e p l a c e o f t h e e v i d e n c e a s j u d i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n a n d a s b e i n g e v i d e n t .
T r a n s l a t i o n : J a c q u e l i n e C s u s s
Notes
' This text will be also published in German.
Claudia Bliimle, 'Der allgegenwartige Blick des Richters: Juridische Evidenz bei Albrecht Dtirer und Lucas Cranach d. A', in Movens Bild. ^wischen Evidenz und Affekt, ed. Gottfried Boehm, Birgit M e r s m a n n u n d Christian Spiess (Mtinchen:
Wilhelm-Fink Verlag, 2008).
2 See also Piyel Haldar, 'The Evidencer's Eye:
Representations of Truth in the Laws of Evidence', Law and Critique, 2:2 (1991), pp.171-89.
3 Ei-win Panofsky, 77K Life and Art of Albrecht Diirer, 2nd edn (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948), p.78.
4 Reiner Schoch, 'Die Sonne der Gerechtigkcit (Sol Iustitiae)', in Germanisches Nationalmuseum Niimberg, Albrecht Diirer. Das druckgraphische Werk, Bd. I, ed.
Anna Scherbaum (Miinchen: Prestel, 2001), pp.79- 80 (p.79).
Elfriede Scheil, 'Albrecht Diirers Melencolia § I und die Gerechtigkeit', ^eitschrift Jiir Kunstgeschichte, 2 (2007), pp.201-14 (p.203).
b Ernst H. Kantorowicz, 77K lung's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1997), p.58.
7 E r n s t ' H . Kantorowicz, 77K King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Tlieology, p.65.
8 Friedrich Ohly, 'Halbbiblischc und aulicrbiblische T y p o l o g i c ' , in Sc/iriften zur mittelalterliclien Bedeulungsforschung (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977), pp.361-400.
Friedrich Ohly, 'Halbbiblischc und auBerbiblische Typologic', p.396.
10 Friedrich Ohly, 'Halbbiblische und auBerbiblische Typologic', p.396.
1 Friedrich Ohly, 'Halbbiblische und auBerbiblische Typologie', p.396.
12 For a detailed discussion of the pictorial synthesis of J o h n and Bacchus, see Erwin Panofsky, A Mythological Painting by Poussin in the jVationalmuseum Stockholm (Stockholm: Norstedt & Soner, 1960), pp.36-44, and Friedrich Ohly, Halbbiblische und aujierbiblische Typologie, pp.396-400, Figures 27-30.
'1 Friedrich Ohly, 'Halbbiblische und auBerbiblische Typologie', p.397.
14 Friedrich Ohly, 'Halbbiblische und auBerbiblische Typologie', p.397.
Erwin Panofsky, A Mythological Painting by Poussin in the JVationalmuseum Slockliolm, p.40.
(> For the iconography of justice see Rudolf Ott Kissel, Die Justitia: Rejlexionen iiber ein Symbol und seine Darskllung in der bildenden Kunst (Mtinchen: C. H.
Beck, 1984).
17 Kurt Rathe, 'Der Richter auf dem Fabeltier', in Festschrift fir Julius Schlosser zum 60. Geburtstage, ed.
Arpad Weixlgartner and Leo Planiscig (Zurich:
Amalthea-Verlag, 1927), pp. 187-208 (p. 188).
18 Thomas Wiirtenberger, 'Recht und Gerechtigkeit in der Kunst Albrecht Dtirers', in Kunst und Recht:
Festgabe fir Hans Fehr, Bd. 1 (Karlsruhe: Verlag C.F.
M u l l e r , 1948), p p . 2 2 1 - 3 5 ; a n d T h o m a s Wiirtenberger, Albrecht Diirer: Kiinstler - Recht - Gerechtigkeit (Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1971).
,!l Reiner Schoch, 'Die Sonne der Gerechtigkeit (Sol Iustitiae)', p.80.
" S u s a n n e L e p s i u s , ' W i s s e n = E n t s c h e i d e n , Nichtwissen=Nichtentscheiden?: Z u m Dilemma richterlicher Beweiserhebung im Spatmittelalter und in der fruhen Neuzeit', in Urleilen/Entscheiden,
ed. C o r n e l i a V i s m a n n a n d T h o m a s Weitin (Mlinchen: Wilhelm Fink-Verlag, 2006), pp.119 42 (p. 120).
S u s a n n e L e p s i u s , ' W i s s e n = E n t s c h e i d e n , Nichtwissen=Nichtentscheiden?', p. 121.
22 Friedrich Teja Bach, Struktur und Erscheinung.
Untersuchungen zu Diirers graphischer Kunsl (Berlin:
Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1996), p. 101.
With regard to the painting see M a x J . Friedlander, Jakob Rosenberg, Tlie Paintings of Lucas Cranach, trans. Heinz Norden (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978); Kurt Simon, Abendliindische Gerechligkeilsbilder (Frankfurt: Kramer, 1948), p.60 and p. 103, Footnote 96; Rainer Michaelis, Deutsche Gemdlde: 14. 18. Jahrhundert (Berlin: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 1989), p.25; Henning Bock, Gemaldegalerie Berlin: Gesamlverzeichnis (Berlin:
Staadiche Museen zu Berlin, 1996), p.35.
2 4 Vital Huhn, 'Lowe und Hund als Symbol des Rechts', Mainfrdnkisches Jahrbuch fur Geschichie und Kunsl, 7 (1955), pp. 1-63 (p.62).
Vital Huhn, 'Lowe und Hund als Symbol des Rechts', p.58.
2(> Vital Huhn, 'Lowe und Hund als Symbol des
Rechts', p.l 1.
2 1 Kurt Rathe, 'Der Richter auf dem Fabeltier', p.201, Footnote 32.
2 8 1 Kings 3, 16:28.
2 9 1 Kings 3, 16:28.
10 Hans-Christian von Herrmann, Das Archiv der Buhne: Eine Archdologie des Theaters und seiner Wissenschafl (Miinchen: Wilhelm Fink-Verlag, 2005) , p.62.
11 Cornelia Vismann, 'Das Drama des Entscheidens', in Urteilen/Entscheiden, ed. Cornelia Vismann and Thomas Weitin (Miinchen: Wilhelm Fink-Verlag, 2006) , pp.91-100 (p.98).
12 Cornelia Vismann, 'Das Drama des Entscheidens', p.92.
Martin WallrafT, Chrislus verus sol: Sonnenverehrung und Christenlum in der Spa tanlike (Mu n s t e r :
Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 2001), p. 145.
i 4 M a r t i n W a l l r a f f , ' C h r i s t u s v e r u s sol:
S o n n e n v e r e h r u n g u n d C h r i s t e n t u m in d e r SpiUantike', p. 145.
Ad Peter Kriiger, Diirers "Apokalypse": Zur poetischen Struktur einer Bilderzdhlung der Renaissance (Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz Verlag, 1996).
i!> Erwin Panofsky, Tlie Life and Art of Albrecht Diirer,
p.78.
37 Nicolaus Cusanus, 'Uber das Sehen Gottes (de visione Dei)', in Philosophische und Iheologische Schriften, iibers. von Anton Scharpff und Eberhard Doring (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2005), pp.233 82. For the picture theoretical relevance of this text, see Gottfried Boehm, Studien zur Perspektivitat: Philosophic und Kunsl in der Friihen Neuzeit (Heidelberg: Winter, 1969), pp.137 71; as well as Holger Simon, 'Bildtheoretische Grundlagen des neuzeidichen Bildes bei Nikolaus von Kues', Concilium medii aevi, 7 (2004), pp.45 76.
i!i Jacques Lacan, Die vier Grundbegriffe der Psychoanalyse (Weinheim: Quadriga, 1996), p. 120. Michel de Certeau demonstrates structural common grounds between Nikolas von Kues and Lacan. Michel de Certeau and Nikolas von Kues, 'Das Geheimnis eines Blickes', in Bildlichkeil, ed. Volker Bohn (Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp, 1990), pp.325 56, in particular pp.345 48. See also on the distinction of eye and gaze, Claudia Bliimle and Anne von der Heiden, eds, Blickzahmung und Augentauschung: Zu Jacques Lacans Bildlheoric (Berlin/Zurich: Diaphanes, 2005).
,!> Vital Huhn, 'Lowe und Hund als Symbol des
Rechts', p.60.
10 Vital Huhn, 'Lowe und Hund als Symbol des Rechts', p.79.
' Ernst H. Kantorowicz, Tlie King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Tlieology, p.79.
4 2 Ernst H. Kantorowicz, 77K King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Tlieology, p.84.
C l a u d i a B l i i m l e s t u d i e d A r t H i s t o r y , G e r m a n L i t e r a t u r e a n d H i s t o r y i n B a s e l a n d B e r l i n . F r o m 2 0 0 2 t h r o u g h 2 0 0 5 s h e w a s a r e s e a r c h f e l l o w a t B a u h a u s - U n i v e r s i t y W e i m a r . S i n c e 2 0 0 5 , s h e t e a c h e s A r t H i s t o r y a t U n i v e r s i t y B a s e l . H e r e d o c t o r a l t h e s i s a b o u t T r u t h a n d J u r i d i c a l F o r m s i n E a r l y M o d e r n P a i n t i n g w i l l b e p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 9 . A m o n g h e r n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s , C l a u d i a B l i i m l e h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o Visuelle Argumentation, e d s H o r s t B r e d e k a m p u n d P a b l o S c h n e i d e r ( M i i n c h e n : W i l h e l m F i n k V e r l a g , 2 0 0 5 ) a n d Bildregime des Rechts, e d s J e a n - B a p t i s t e J o l y , C o r n e l i a V i s m a n n a n d T h o m a s W e i t i n ( S t u t t g a r t : S c h l o s s S o l i t u d e , 2 0 0 7 ) . S h e is a l s o t h e e d i t o r ( w i t h A r m i n S c h a f e r ) o f Struktur, Figur, Kontur. Abstraktion in Kunst und Lebenswissenschqften ( B e r l i n / Z u r i c h : D i a p h a n e s , 2 0 0 7 ) .
