GIS and the Altered Perception of our Relative Space Master Thesis

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Master Thesis

submitted within the UNIGIS MSc programme at Z_GIS

University of Salzburg

GIS and the Altered Perception of our Relative Space

Has GIS changed the way we perceive the world around us?

By

BSocSci Honours - Stephen Wiggins

Student Number: 103152

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Master of Science (Geographical Information Science & Systems) – MSc (GISc) Advisor:

Ann Olivier Durban, 2015/09/19

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I. SCIENCE PLEDGE

By my signature below, I certify that my thesis is entirely the result of my own work. I have cited all sources I have used in my thesis, and I have always indicated their origin.

(Place, Date) (Signature)

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II. PREFACE

The research conducted for this thesis was undertaken by Stephen Wiggins, an MSc correspondence student of UNIGIS Sub-Saharan Africa. This work was done during the period between December 2014 and September 2015, under the supervision of Mrs Ann Olivier, GIS Professional. PGP 1280.

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This thesis represents the original work conducted by the author. There has been no plagiarism during this study, and where the use of other people's work is evident the appropriate references have been made.

Signature: __________________ Date: _________________

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III. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following people need to be acknowledged for their outstanding support, input and supervision during the period of my research:

 Mrs Ann Olivier, my supervisor who, for the duration of my master’s degree, has been a source of guidance and encouragement.

 Mrs Marlene Wells, Clinical Psychologist, who took the time out of her busy schedule to answer a few questions that have provided immense value to this study.

 Professor Muki Haklay from the University College in London, for his

correspondence with reference to using content from his presentation entitled, “What has Geographic Information Science got to do with citizen science?”

 The entire UNIGIS team for providing the opportunity for like-minded people in South Africa to develop and improve their GIS skills and qualifications.

Last but not least,

 My beautiful daughter Amelia Grace Wiggins, who has been my primary source of inspiration. Hopefully one day she will read this thesis and gain some value from it.

 My beautiful and loving wife, Elizabeth Ann Wiggins for her continued patience, support, motivation, encouragement, understanding and the many cups of coffee during the late nights and weekends.

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IV. ABSTRACT

The need to explore, to learn, to have control over the environment in which we live has been a human characteristic that has pushed human civilisation to extents that are far beyond the planet on which we live. This natural human instinct has also been part of how people have captured and recorded snapshots of their individual perception of the world they live in. The evolution of human spatial cognition and the perception of the world around us, has developed over the course of history as a combined result of the creation of image schemata or mind maps, navigation or exploration, as well as the need for control and safety within an environment. The hypothesis of this thesis questions how GIS has changed the way we perceive the world around us, at not only a local level but also on a global scale. The use of GIS within the everyday routines of society is found in such tools as GPS navigation devices, the use of Google Earth, Google Maps, and social media such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, as well as News Media and the

combined use of infographics and maps of current events. The use of these tools generate image schemata on a daily basis, and as such our perception of the world around us is adjusted accordingly. As proof for this hypothesis, methods of research involving the collection of qualitative data through the review of current literature, attendance of an online lecture/webinar, development and publishing an online survey, as well as communication with a clinical phycologist were conducted.

“Our perception of the world is broadened because we can see multi-dimensional representations of our planet, the unknown has become the known. We can mentally visualise places we may never see, allowing us to feel still connected to the whole planet.

We better identify with people in places where important or tragic events have

occurred. We become familiar with the distant parts of our planet in a way that reduces the distance to the touch of a button on a computer” (Marlene Wells 2015)

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1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Throughout recorded history, humans have endeavoured to understand the world around them. Whether it is through cave paintings, folklore, or written manuscripts, understanding their place in the world, they live in has been a driving force for discovery and advancement.

Maps, in particular, have proved to be extremely useful in capturing a snapshot of the human perspective of relative space for centuries. They are clear indicators of the extent to which people at a particular point in time understood their geographic space and place within the world. Maps through the ages have incorporated a combination of mythical, mathematical, cultural, religious, political, and physical attributes. They are essentially frozen moments in time which give us insight into how we perceived the environment in which we lived.

Examples of which, can be identified by investigating the 12 maps identified in Jerry

Brotton’s “A History of The World in 12 Maps”(Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013, 12).

With the advancements in Cartography and the need to know more about the world around us, GIS has become a tool that is proving to be extremely useful in most spheres of industry.

GIS is used as a pivotal tool on a daily basis to design and plan how cities are built, or how certain industries can be located in the optimum location. Not only that, GIS can run models that predict certain scenarios, like such enabling us with the right plans and tools to prevent damage to not only our places of residence but to ourselves as well. Through GIS, we are beginning to understand ourselves and our impact on the world around us.

In this day in age, society is ruled by technology. GIS tools are used on a global scale to assist in everyday routines, yet many people are not aware of the extent of their reliance on GIS. GPS technology is used for navigation and locating our way around cities. (Leshed et al.

2008)

Weather broadcasts use GIS technology to assist in graphically presenting weather forecasts.

(Sznaider et al. 2004) Google Earth has allowed the average person the ability to travel virtually to any location on the Earth’s surface at the click of a button. News Media use geoprocessing, spatial analysis tools and interactive GIS maps to represent the location and impact of events across the globe graphically. (Sui and Goodchild 2011) GIS is used in the planning process of designing and construction bulk infrastructural networks within cities.

(Yeh 1999) Global social media and social networks have in essence broken down the borders of communication around the globe, allowing the free flow of both social and professional networking at a global scale.(Stefanidis, Crooks, and Radzikowski 2013) Societal interest in the events that take place around the globe (e.g. 9/11 attacks, Royal Weddings/Births, Terrorist attacks), is only increased with global media and social networking, as a result of which huge support grows for those affected. This could be the result of how the representation of this information puts into perspective the location of these events in relation to those that have an interest in the event itself.(Stefanidis, Crooks, and

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Page | 11 Radzikowski 2013) As a result of GIS the perception of relative space has evolved to include not only local residential, suburban, or national identification , but also takes into account inter-continental connections and relationships to other locations across the

globe.(Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

The relevance of this topic is such that there are only a minority of people that understand the usefulness and global potential of GIS, yet almost all that use the technology unknowingly, in some way or another use the basic fundamental tools of GIS on a daily basis. Without these tools, the perception of our geographic space may be limited by our own boundaries both physical and mental. The result of this thesis will benefit those who share an interest in the understanding of GIS, the world around us and our place within it.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem asks the question, has GIS changed the way we perceive the world around us, by altering our perception of geographic space? The aim of this thesis will be to answer this question through a set of defined objectives.

1.3 Objectives

In order to meet the research aim, the following objectives have been formulated:

1. Understand the evolution of the human perception of space and place throughout history.

2. Identify specific GIS-based tools and functionality that have impacted on people at a psychological, social and physical level.

3. Investigate and analyse qualitative data collected, through the medium of online professional networking, attendance of online seminars, discussions with a clinical phycologist as well as the analysis of data collected from an online survey based on the spatial perception of individuals.

1.4 Outline of the Chapters

The following chapters allow the reader to obtain an understanding of the theoretical background, methodology and findings of the study.

In chapter two, information regarding the theoretical and conceptual background to the study will be investigated. This literature review will delve into the history and gradual evolution of how relative space and the world around us has been perceived and recorded. This will be used as a framework to structure the data collection process.

The methodology in chapter three will discuss the qualitative process of collecting data for this study. This study will be comprised of both primary and secondary data collection.

Primary data collected will be predominantly from an online survey distributed to a sample

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Page | 12 size of 125 people from various backgrounds, age groups and occupations. The attendance of an online seminar will also aid in the collection of both primary, secondary data. Other sources of secondary data will be based on current and available literature.

Chapter four will focus on the results obtained from the methodology. This chapter will investigate any possible trends in the data collected as well as any defining characteristics in space perception as a result of using GIS-based tools.

The conclusion to this study in chapter five will summarise the results determined in chapter four and examine the final outcomes of the research. This will ultimately provide a clear understanding as to how GIS has changed the way we perceive the world around us.

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2 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of the research is to draw a correlation between GIS technology and how we now perceive the world around us. In order to do so, there needs to be a fundamental

understanding of not only GIS, and its functionality but most importantly an understanding of relative space. The literature review for this thesis will begin by outlining what is widely understood by GIS. This will be followed by gaining a theoretical understanding of relative space. Following on from the conceptualisations, the focus of the chapter will move towards highlighting commonly used tools and functions with roots in GIS, to how this technology is rapidly creating a foundation in society and changing the way relative space is viewed and understood. This is most evident in the appearance of projects where GIS-based activities and initiatives involving non-GIS individuals or communities collecting spatial data have become pivotal to their success. Finally, this chapter concludes with a look at how GIS plays major roles in shaping the environment both physically, socially and economically.

2.2 What is GIS?

A commonly asked question by non-GIS literate people when referring to oneself as a GIS Technician/Specialist/Technologist/Practitioner when asked, “What do you do for a living?”

is “What is GIS?” The answer, however, is not “set in stone”. GIS can be defined in terms of either science or a system. A definition of GIS as a system is as follows:

“…a system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analysing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth.” (Maguire 1991)

The explanation for GIS as a science is slightly more elaborate:

“Geographic Information Science (GI Science) may be defined as the basic research field that seeks to redefine geographic concepts and their use in the context of

geographic information systems (GIS). GI Science also examines the impacts of GIS on individuals and society, and the influences of society on GIS. GI Science re-examines some of the most fundamental themes in traditional spatially-oriented fields such as geography, cartography, and geodesy while incorporating more recent developments in cognitive and information science. GI Science also overlaps with and draws from more specialized research fields such as computer science, statistics, mathematics, and psychology, and contributes to progress in those fields. It supports research in political science and anthropology and draws on those fields in studies of geographic information and society.”

(www.ncgia.buffalo.edu 2015)

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Page | 14 For the purposes of this thesis, GIS will be understood as a science. This is due to the linkage within the above definition of how GIS has a symbiotic relationship with society and vice versa. This relationship is the crux that will be explained in this thesis.

2.3 Human Perception of Place and Space

2.3.1 Historical Concepts of Space through the medium of Maps

Maps through the ages have provided mankind with a medium to express their perception of their surroundings. The creation of maps and the development of cartography are considered by some to be one of the oldest forms of human communication, resulting in the ability of the human mind to cognitively map our surroundings through experience and personal

perception. (Harley and Woodward 1987) Author of the book “Unweaving the Rainbow”, Richard Dawkins states that:

“Map-making is one of the basic things that first distinguished us from animals. We needed to explain to each other where to hunt, so spatial awareness, plus the skills of representation and communication, had to develop." (Vanessa Thorpe 2012)

Figure 1 represents the Ortelius World Map, from the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum by Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598). This map represented a century of European exploration during the last half of the 16^th century. Although slightly distorted in terms of continental shapes, there is a relative amount of accuracy to the map, with the exception of the strange sea creatures believed to have inhabited certain sectors of the Indian and Pacific Ocean, as well as the distorted location of Australia and the massive extent of the north and southern poles.

(Richard H. Brown and Family 2015)

Figure 1: Ortelius World Map 1570 (Ortels, Oertel, Orthellius, Wortels 1570)

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Page | 15 This map ultimately brings to light the perspective of how the known world was perceived during the 16^th Century. This was the perception of explorers based on their travels and experiences navigating unknown territories. The published work would then be read by other scholars of the time, whereby sharing other people’s perception of the known world along the known trade routes. The collection of the maps found within the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum sparked, what has been referred to as, “the golden age of cartography” within the Flemish and Dutch regions. (Richard H. Brown and Family 2015) This new age dominated the map trade until the end of the 17^th Century.(Richard H. Brown and Family 2015)

In the book called “A History of The World in 12 Maps” Jerry Brotton identified 12 specific Maps that capture the human perception of the world at specific moments in time. In an interview with a journalist for “The Atlantic” and Jerry Brotton, towards the end of 2013 the 12 maps mentioned in his book were briefly discussed:(Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) The following figures will briefly review the 12 mentioned maps, and in so doing provide an understanding as to the impact each of the maps had on people of the time.

Figure 2: Ptolemy's Geography - 150AD

Claudius Ptolemy is considered one of the most famous geographers. He was the first to use mathematics and geometry as a way of successfully mapping the known world at the time and essentially developing the notion of latitude and longitude based coordinate systems.(Uri

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Page | 16 Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) His legacy lasted close to 1500 years and set the

foundation for Cartography. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

Figure 3: al-Idrisi's World Map - 1154

Al-Sharif al-Idrisi handled the development of a guide to geography written in Arabic, which combined a mix of cultures from Jewish, Greek, Christian and Islamic traditions. (Uri

Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) The guide also contained two world maps, one of which was this one represented above as well as 70 regional maps that could be matched together.

(Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) This particular set of works was meant to represent more of a combination of physical geography and culture/traditions rather than mathematics and religion. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

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Figure 4: Herefords Mappa Mundi – 1300

According to Brotton, this particular map is located within the Hereford Cathedral in England, apparently represents what was thought of as the known world by medieval

Christians at the time. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013). The map represents the known world not based on space but on biblical time. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) This is evident with Jesus at the very top of the map looking over the globe, followed by the Garden of Eden, proceeding to the centre of the map where Jerusalem is situated. At the bottom of the map, the Straits of Gibraltar is illustrated (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

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Figure 5: KwanKun's - Kangido Map – 1402

The above map represents one of the first cartographic depictions of correctly orientated land masses, where northern based continents and land masses are at a north/south orientation.

(Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)This map was developed by a group of Korean astronomers and represents the power of China at the time in comparison to the rest of the world. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)The land mass of China far outweighs that of any of the other continents, specifically Africa, Europe and India. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) The map indicates a cultural ideology representing the imperial dominance of China at the time. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

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Figure 6: Waldseemuller’s Universalis Cosmographia - 1507

The map above, created by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemuller (1507) is (according to Jerry Brotton) considered one of the most expensive maps ever created. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) The map was the first ever depiction of not only the Pacific Ocean by also the separate continents of North and South America. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) As a result of this the map was bought by the American Library of Congress for around $10 million. It was close to around the time of this map's creation that the age of discovery stepped into full swing. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

Figure 7: Ribero's World Map – 1529

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Page | 20 This map represents one of the first instances of politics manipulating geography. (Uri

Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) The map was made by a Portuguese cartographer (Diogo Ribero) during a political dispute between Spain and Portugal. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) As a result of this political tension between the two countries, a set of islands, which collectively were the centre of the spice trade, were intentionally plotted within the (considered) Spanish half of the map as opposed to the Portuguese region. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) Although he knew where these islands were located, he was also being paid by the Spanish to create the map. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

Figure 8: Mercator's World Map – 1569

Next to Ptolemy, Geradus Mercator is considered as a very influential geographer and cartographer. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) He was the first to (relatively

accurately) mimic the curvature of the Earth on a flat piece of paper. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) His maps were designed for European navigators but in time his method of flattening a spherical globe would revolutionise navigation across the oceans and the world.

(Henrik Bering 2013)

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Figure 9: Joan Blaeu’s Atlas Maior – 1662

Joan Blaeu’s Atlas was the first of the commercially driven maps to be created, which centred more on producing income than sticking to scientific cartographic methods of mapping the world. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) Not only this, but it was the first to place the Sun at the centre of the universe and not the map of the world. (Henrik Bering 2013)

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Figure 10: Cassini's Map of France – 1744

This map of Cassini’s representation of France during 1744 is the first of its kind. This was the first attempt at mapping an entire country using the scientific method of triangulation to measure accurately out the full extent of France.(Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) This marked the beginning of Nation State mapping whereas before mapping was only conducted privately. (Henrik Bering 2013) This map set out the model for which other nations would follow suit and begin charting their known territories. (Henrik Bering 2013)

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Figure 11: Mackinder's Geographical Pivot of History – 1904

Halford Mackinders map, was located within a paper he wrote, which argued that Russia and Central Asia were pivotal in the running of world politics at the time. This was the first map of its kind to highlight the idea of political agendas being driven by geographic issues.

Essentially, Halford Mackinders map introduced the concept and notion of geopolitics.

Figure 12: Peters Projection – 1973

Arno Peters Equal Area projected map was the first to represent the globe in a manner

alternative to the Mercator projected maps of the time.(Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013) The main purpose of this particular map was to represent the actual surface area of all

continents spatially. (Uri Friedman and Jerry Brotton 2013)

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Figure 13: 12th Map - Google Earth Image

In the age of space travel, satellite communication and photography, obtaining an accurate image of what Earth truly looks like is now simply available at the click of a button. The onset of Google Earth and then Google Maps, catapulted the technology of virtual mapping into an arena where just about anyone who has access to a computer and the internet will have access to maps and geographic data for almost anywhere on the surface of the planet.

Google Earth is the perfect example of the age in which we live in now. The age of information is controlled by what is available by large corporations such as Google, big media, banks, and politics. This begs the question and fear raised by Brotton, which considers that new geography is being pushed forward by the “accumulation of financial profit, through the monopolization of quantifiable information”.(Henrik Bering 2013) However, in contradiction to that statement, we also live in an age where information is being produced by the everyday working citizen through volunteered geographic information and public participation GIS initiatives. This, however, will be further explained in detail in the following few sections of this chapter.

Historically, the production of maps, although predominantly viewed as a result of human advancement and exploration, is also thought of as a catalytic trigger for the evolution of human thought. This has been accomplished by understanding how the various innovations and methods of cartography have helped shape history. (Harley and Woodward 1987)

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Page | 25 2.3.2 Concepts of Geographic Space

GIS is a system that is designed around the human concepts of both the small and large scales of geographic space. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997) These concepts are grounded in the view that the human perspective of space is experience based and is generated predominantly by navigating and experiencing new places. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997) Therefore, scale plays an important role in shaping spatial cognition and spatial behaviour. In contrast, GIS breaks down the barriers between small and large scale representations with the

availability of various spatial tools. Large and small scale spaces are viewed in the same manner but are dependent on the purpose for the map or view. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

In terms of human spatial cognition, people learn about the world around them through their senses (sight, touch and sound predominantly). This has created, what has been termed

“Image Schemata” (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997). Image Schemata are defined as:

“ recurrent patterns, shapes, and regularities in our actions, perceptions and conceptions – recurrent experiences that serve as ongoing ordering activities.”

(Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

Image Schemata are highly important factors that are considered when developing a GIS. The closer the match between what is perceived and what exists on a GIS enables a more user- friendly system. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

There are some concepts of space that emphasize people's experience with space at both a small and large scale as being a major contributor to how they perceive that space or places of similarity. The following are brief descriptions of the various concepts of space:

 One of the early models to distinguish between different types of space was conducted by (Lynch 1960)“Image of the City” where it was put forward that

“environmental images” play a major role in social development, emotional security, experiences, as well as population movement within a given space or environment.

(Lynch 1960) Based on interviews with local residents, Lynch conceptually dissected 3 American cities what he referred to as cognitive component parts, which included the following:

o Spatial Nodes – A space that can be perceived from one position such as path intersections

o Districts – Relatively large subsections of cities that have defining characteristics such as ethnicity, class, building types, or topography.

o Spatial Regions – Space that must be experienced over a period of time through gradual movements throughout the region.

(Lynch 1960)

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 Another model of spatial conceptualisation is that of Ittelson (1973), which investigated the space of objects and environmental space. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997). The space of objects referred to those that are smaller than the average human body such as a plate, an ornament, a painting etc. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997) Environments however were considered to completely contain the objects. As such, environments were seen to drive the movement of people through space and in essence, encourage them to create their own perceptions and experiences.

(Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

 Canter (1977) proposed a relatively similar model of space which distinguished the difference between Object Space and the Space of Places. (Freundschuh and

Egenhofer 1997) Object space is considered the space of psychologists, according to Canter, as their geographic scope of work is at the scale of buildings. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997) The Space of places, however, considers regionally scaled places such as suburbs or cities as containing “emotional attachments that influence the perception of the surrounding environment”. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

 (Downs and Stea 1977) also connect a human perception based on experiences within an environment to distinguish between small and large-scale spaces. In this particular model Small scale, space is considered as perceptual space containing objects that are 3 dimensional in nature and are therefore considered manipulable. (Downs and Stea 1977) Based on this, large scale spaces or “trans-perceptual space” cannot be

perceived from a single experience, but should rather be experienced through repeated experiences so as to gain a full perception of the space/environment. (Downs and Stea 1977)

The concepts mentioned so far only seem to distinguish between small and large scales of space. There are, however, models that consider a third scale between small and large scales:

 Siegal (1981) recognised scales of space slightly differently and included a third scale of space to distinguish that space which is too large to be fully perceived and experienced by navigation alone. (Liben, Patterson, and Newcombe 1981)This would include large spaces such as States, Provinces, Countries and Continents which are more likely to be experienced predominantly through the medium of maps containing representations much smaller than a human body or any other typically though of small scale space or object as considered by other concepts.

(Liben, Patterson, and Newcombe 1981)

 Garling and Gollege considered the three scales of space as (small, medium and large) as ranging from the size of a single room (small scale), property extent to neighbourhood (Medium Scale), to city sized spaces and larger. (Gärling and Golledge 1989)

 Mandler’s (1983) model of space also constitutes small, medium and large scales of space. However, the meaning behind them is relatively different to that of

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Page | 27 Garling and Golledge interpretation.(Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) In this

instance, the small scale can be linked to objects such as a table, chairs or small scaled models of larger areas. (Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) At this scale, spatial information attributed to these types of spaces is obtained through a single

perspective. (Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) Not much in the way of revisiting this space is required to gain an experience of this scale of space. External perception occurs rather than gaining an experience from within space. (Weinert and

Perlmutter 2013) Medium scaled places/spaces are extended to that of a room and as such movement within that room is required to gain a sound perspective and experience of that space. (Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) The large scale spaces are equated with anything larger than a house. This could include towns and cities or spaces where the perception of space is gathered through navigation. (Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) This model links with Seigal’s (1981) model in terms of spaces such as countries and continents which are more likely observed through the medium of maps or globes. (Liben, Patterson, and Newcombe 1981)The first idea that comes to mind with regards to this is the use of Google Earth, in which extremely large scale space is represented on a single computer screen.

In essence, this indicates a significant role for maps and how the availability and usage of them assist in shaping the human spatial cognition of large extents such as provinces,

countries and continents. Within a GIS, users are able to zoom in and out, pan across a scene, and create a “fly through” digital model. Users are able to experience virtually a real world location through navigational perspectives and experiences. The various spatial models discussed share a common theme. All of the models have the factor of human experience and perspective of space through means of manipulability, sight and movement. As such the perceiver experiences various types of spaces. It is one of the ultimate goals of GIS to

develop tools and functionality to create an interface for users to interact with digital space as if it where the actual space. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

Through understanding the various concepts of geographic space and spatial cognition, an understanding of the importance of GIS grows. As spatial data becomes more and more entrenched in how humans learn about their environment, the use of GIS-based tools,

functionality and generated information becomes ever more important and socially accepted.

The following section of this chapter discusses the most commonly used GIS-based tools and compares these tools to what we see on the news, movies, the internet and even everyday occupations.

2.4 Commonly Used GIS-based Tools

A GIS allows for various layers of information to be overlaid on top of one another to create ultimately a digitally visual representation of the real world, which enables clear analysis an understanding of spatial patterns and relationships. (National Geographic 2015)

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Page | 28 According to the popular GIS-based website “GIS Lounge” the basic uses of GIS is as

follows:

 Mapping of Data - The central function of a GIS is to represent visually geographic data in such a way that secondary information can be easily deduced. (GIS

Contributor 2015) Clear examples of this in everyday life which non-GIS users may notice are the animated weather maps produced after news broadcasts throughout the day. Regardless of where you are throughout the world, this information is basically at everyone’s fingertips. News Media also produce maps to assist in reporting on events around the world. This is usually the case when reporting on natural disasters, political conflict, and virus outbreaks, etc. In doing so, the general public is able to gain a better understanding of the situation or events under investigation without having to travel to those countries to find out. These representations may impact some people more than others, especially those that have personal ties to those locations.

Figure 14: RTV News report on Hurricane Sandy

(TheIndyChannel.com Staff 2012)

The question of where a specific story or event occurs has always been a fundamental factor when it comes to journalism. (Sui and Goodchild 2011) The use of Google Earth or Bing Imagery based backgrounds is increasingly playing an integral part in conveying breaking news for most of the mainstream media. (Sui and Goodchild 2011) This convergence of cartographic functionality and tools is also becoming integrated with popular social media applications. GIS has evolved social media into location-based social media, resulting in a switch from cyberspace to real space.(Sui and Goodchild 2011) Applications such as Twitter, Facebook, Instagram and Google Latitude allow users the functionality of “checking in” (Sui and Goodchild 2011). As a result, anyone connected to these users are able to view the last location visited, whether it be a country, town, hotel, or even the last local event they attended. (Sui and Goodchild 2011)

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Figure 15: Map of Facebook related relationships between users

(http://www.trendhunter.com/ 2010)

The figure above relates to the global reach of social media and clearly shows how closely connected the world has become. The next figure is an example of how location-based information from social media outlets can be used and illustrated to bring to light serious topics of concern. Geocoded tweets of the popular social network “Twitter”, were mapped by a group of geographers at the University of Kentucky who mapped negatively based

homophobic slurs, resulting in the map below. (http://news.discovery.com 2013)

Figure 16: Mapping Tweets

(http://news.discovery.com 2013)

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 Proximity Analysis – This particular analytical function of GIS is used to define the relationship between specific locations. This is most commonly used within

commercial organisations looking to grow their proximity to trade in other locations.

This functionality uses a host of various factors, such as social, economic, and physical environmental factors that may prohibit profitable sites. (GIS Contributor 2015) This sort of analysis is also used within engineering and city planning type organisations to aid feasibility studies and project planning.

 Buffering – A technique used in most cases along with Proximity Analysis, buffering is used to deduce a measured area of influence around a given point, line or polygon.

(GIS Contributor 2015). City Planners, Developers and Engineers rely on this

technique (among others) to determine affected locations within a certain proximity to a particular development. An example of this would be the number of properties within a specific distance from a proposed road upgrade, as seen from the figure below.

 Identification of Clusters – The identification of clusters usually involves the use of multiple algorithms to identify features or points where the distance between them is less than certain criteria or where there is a density of points greater than a certain value. (GIS Contributor 2015) This sort of tool is used to identify the distribution of plant and animal species, or dwelling distributions in rural areas.

 Finding Nearest – This technique is used to measure the distance between a starting point and the closest vertex of a polygon, polyline or another point based feature type.

(GIS Contributor 2015) Most GPS devices use this type of technique to identify closest petrol stations, restaurants, shopping centre, post box, etc. Based on statistics from the United States of America, as of autumn 2012 it was identified that around 66.3 Million people use their cell phones for Maps and GPS navigation. This was a staggering increase from 2009 when the total was around 9.61 Million people.

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Figure 17: Percentage Increase of Mobile Phone GPS/Navigation Usage

(http://www.statista.com 2015)

Figure 18: Mapping of nearest post boxes in Japan

(http://postmap.org/ 2012)

Uber, for example, would also use this technique to identify the nearest Uber to attend to a request. Users of Uber are able to determine which Uber car they would prefer to use based on price, and once selected they are able to identify the location of their transportation and the route taken to get to them. This application is becoming ever increasingly popular as an easy and reliable means of transport within cities. (The Techie Guy 2013)

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Figure 19: Uber Taxi Location

(The Techie Guy 2013)

 What’s in an Area – Another common GIS function uses basic visual analysis to identify certain features within a given area. (GIS Contributor 2015) Although this shouldn’t be confused with proximity analysis, the identification of features within an area is probably less technical in terms of the methods used. Examples of this type of functionality can be identified in the investigation of soil types within a given area of land, or various land uses within the demarcated extent of a town. (GIS Contributor 2015) Another example of this, which has yet to become popular is that of the Google Glass project which allowed users to combine social networking and GPS navigation into wearable attire in the form of glasses to create a form of augmented

reality.(http://mashable.com 2015)

 Location Analysis – The general functionality of a GIS is the analysis of spatially based features. (GIS Contributor 2015) Locational Analysis examines characteristics of a given area or location in relation to either a new land use, construction of a new

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Page | 33 feature such as a warehouse, retail outlet, house or park etc. (GIS Contributor 2015) This is conducted using various algorithms and factors to identify optimal locations accurately. (GIS Contributor 2015)A recent example of location analysis is of the following map sourced from the BBC on the recent Nepal Earthquake and the extent of the event. The map also shows examples of buffers, locational analysis, proximity analysis, what’s in an area, and mapping of data.

Figure 20: Location Analysis of Nepal Earthquake

(http://www.bbc.com/ 2015)

It is clear from the examples the commonly used tools that GIS has become entrenched into the wave of data that is provided to us on a daily basis. With the exception of a few of the specialist based functions, mainly used for engineering, planning or development based institutions/organisations, the use of GIS-based information and functionality is broadcasted to the majority of the global population, through many different facets. The news media, social networking, our jobs, the world wide web itself overflows with geographic based information that aid in informing us of what is happening around us, or at least in countries around the world. The following section will delve into how this spatially based information is made available to anyone and everyone.

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Page | 34 2.5 GIS and Big Data

2.5.1 Volunteered Geographic Information - VGI

Volunteered Geographic Information or VGI is a newly investigated initiative that relies on crowdsourced geographic information and open source based software as a means of collecting, storing, maintaining and sharing spatial data to a global community. (M. Haklay 2010) Although the concept of online based mapping has been around for quite some time, it was always found to be used within the realm of GIS specialists.(M. Haklay 2010) However, since the onset of the Web2.0 based mapping application “Open Street Maps” (OSM) 2004 and the elements of Web2.0 functionality in Google Earth (Frederick Lane 2007), a new movement of not only spatial data collection but also the spread of GIS awareness throughout the globe, has flourished. (M. Haklay 2010) This growth of GIS awareness could probably be due to the types of activities that have given rise to the term Neogeography. This term has been used to describe how non-geographers or non-expert users of GIS-based tools are now able to capitalise on and make the most of maps without requiring a great detail of experience or knowledge in geographic studies or GIS. (Battya et al. 2010)

“The web is now flush with geographic data, being harnessed in a usable and searchable format” (M. Haklay 2010)

The quote above is all too true. The World Wide Web as we know it is now abuzz with geographic data which also shares its place with non-spatial data, providing a wealth of information that can be analysed and more importantly used in business and society.(META Group 2001) According to Poorthuis and Zook 2013, VGI gave birth to what is now called

“Big Data”. (Poorthuis and Zook 2013) This is a term often used to describe the enormous amount of data available for analysis from a multitude of various sources which can ultimately be used to monitor and forecast trends in global economic and social behaviour.

(Oxford Dictionary 2015) As such, accurate analysis of this data can lead to better decision making, efficient processes, cost reductions and reduced risk. (META Group 2001) Examples of where VGI plays a major factor in the growth of big data can be identified through the simple use of Google Maps and the GPS units often found within smartphones. Users with a Google account or any account that can be linked to Google (Instagram, Facebook, Twitter), produce spatially referenced data through geotagged photos, tweets, or check-ins on

Facebook. (Poorthuis and Zook 2013)

Although slightly different in the methods of creating and collecting spatial data, Open Street Maps (OSM) can be considered the poster child of VGI and crowd sourced GIS data. OSM aims to create map data that is free to use, edit and licence under creative commons licencing schemes. Where previously spatial data was created and collected by suitably trained

personnel, OSM allows private citizens, with no real GIS-based qualification, the tools and functionality to create and update geographic information. (M. Haklay 2010)

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Page | 35 A local example of the use of VGI in a South African context is the iAfrikan Online

Xenophobic Incident map that has recently become available. The xenophobic attacks that have recently occurred in South Africa have been recorded spatially for anyone to view. This was made public on the well-known South African news media outlet News 24 on April 21, 2015. (“Online Map Shows Xenophobic Incidents throughout SA” 2015) The online resource allows anyone to report the exact location and manner of xenophobic attack. This user-

friendly online GIS tool brings to light the true reality and extent of the situation. Not only are users unknowingly using GIS technology but they are also broadening their perspective of the situation at hand. The tool is also available as a downloadable smartphone application allowing anyone with a smartphone the functionality to participate in growing the body of knowledge and possibly even assisting in finding solutions and causes for these terrible acts.

(iAfrikan 2015) The figure below is a screenshot of the online xenophobic reporting tool.

Figure 21: Online Xenophobic Mapping

(iAfrikan 2015)

Available to all as an interactive application to gain an extended perspective on the problem at hand, essentially this tool could draw further attention to Xenophobia, not just in the South African context, but in other countries around the world.

2.5.2 Public Participation GIS

A similar term to VGI, and conceptually related, is Public Participation GIS (PPGIS). The term was first mentioned in 1996 at a meeting of the National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) to describe how GIS technology could be used as a supporting tool to bolster the activity of public participation for various applications and projects with the main purpose and goal of inclusion and empowerment of marginalized

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Page | 36 populations. (Brown 2012) In contrast to VGI, the spatial data collection process in PPGIS studies are “purposive and agency driven rather than citizen-initiated and voluntary.”

(Brown 2012)

Projects and initiatives are being put in place as a means of supporting local communities.

One of the many examples of this can be seen in the UK where VGI is used as a tool for community members to voice their concerns. The Mapping for Change project is an initiative by the University College of London (UCL) that get involved with organisations and

businesses that wish to understand better the places in which they live and work. (“Mapping for Change” 2015) Mapping for Change’s main focus is community mapping using

geographical analysis and visualisation as a means of identifying local activities and areas of concern. (“Mapping for Change” 2015) This in turn brings communities together to improve living conditions and tackles issues that are affecting those communities. Some of the topics that have been investigated include:

 Citizen Science used to Map Community Air Quality (London, UK) – Mapping for Change and UCL have been involved in training and community support to both measure and map the air quality in several areas of London, as a means of raising awareness to their local City’s attention. (“Mapping for Change” 2015)

 Eco21.Pl: Participatory Mapping to Address Sustainable Development (Silesia, Poland) – This project aims to increase the participation of citizens in shaping local policy through the process of conducting training and coaching workshops across various communities within the Silesia area of Poland. Training of community members on participatory mapping methods will be conducted. Information collected from the community-driven maps will be used to develop recommendations for planning based projects. In so doing local plans and spatial development frameworks will largely be based on community member’s needs and concerns. (“Mapping for Change” 2015)

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Figure 22: Mapping for Sustainable Development

(“Mapping for Change” 2015)

 Local Schools for Local Children – Due to a lack of schooling facilities within the North London Area, a group of parents got together to change the situation. With the aid of Mapping for Change, a map was produced indicating levels of scholar

deprivation overlaid with the locations of the deprived children in need of school facilities. The result of this initiative has been the approval of developing The Archer Academy School. (“Mapping for Change” 2015)

2.5.3 GIS: Reshaping our Environment

This thesis so far has largely been regarding GIS as a tool for viewing and perceiving the world around us in a multitude of ways. This has been evident in the evolution of mapping through the ages and how various methods of cartography and other factors, manipulated societies to understand their physical location in relation to other places around the world. It has also been discussed how various concepts of space have assisted in understanding how our geographic perception is developed through physical movement through a specific extent of space, and that no one perception is the same. The application of GIS is used in almost all facets of society. This includes and is not limited by:

 Local Government –Infrastructure Asset Management

 Real Estate and Marketing – Property Valuations

 Public Safety and Defence – Military Defence

 Natural Resource Exploration and Extraction – Mining, Oil and Gas Exploration

 Transportation – Transport Planning

 Health Management – Facility Need Identification

 Geospatial Industry – Data Manipulation, Collection and Application Development

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 Urban Planning o Zoning

o Land Acquisition o Economic Development o Code Enforcement

o Housing Renovation Programs o Emergency Response

o Crime Analysis o Tax Assessment

 Environmental Sciences – Environmental Risk Modelling and Impact Assessments

 Politics – Predictive Modelling based on statistics and Analysis of Election Results

 Civil Engineering – Mapping and alignment construction designs and maintenance

 Business – Demographic and Market Analysis

 Education – School bus Routing and Attendance Area Maintenance (ECDP 2015)

2.5.3.1 GIS Asset Management and Transportation

It is within these applications where we see how GIS is playing a pivotal role in reshaping the physical environment in which we live. Out of the above-mentioned list of GIS-based

applications, there is a few that stand out as having direct implications for the environment in which we live. Transportation and the application of GIS in transport planning is a growing trend. New roads and highways are constantly being developed across the world, connecting villages, cities, industrial and agricultural hubs. GIS-T is the commonly used acronym used to reference transportation applications in GIS. (Waters 1999) GIS-T grew from the following:

 Developments in management information systems and various techniques in database and relational databases, (Waters 1999)

 The ever increasing need for routing based solutions such as shortest path analysis as well as location-allocation modelling. (Waters 1999)

 The introduction of computer-based drafting programs into various levels of government departments. (Waters 1999)

 Improvements in computer graphics for display purposes. (Waters 1999)

 Development of powerful and low-cost desktop computers. (Waters 1999)

 Conceptual developments in determining algorithms for shortest path analysis, routing procedures, linear programming, and the “dynamic segmentation of links within GIS- T” (Waters 1999)

 The development of the systems approach to transportation planning, the four-step model of trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and network assignment, (Waters 1999)

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Page | 39 2.5.3.2 GIS and Urban/Town Planning

As with Transport Planning, urban and town planning involve a specific focus on the layout of a developing area whether it be a road network connecting two hubs, or how a settlement may be developed, where certain developments should occur and why. All three categories of planning have a focus on changing a landscape or an environment to suit the needs of

communities. Urban planning, for example, can be described as the following:

“..a technical and political process concerned with the welfare of people, control of the use of land, design of the urban environment including transportation and

communication networks, and protection and enhancement of the natural environment.”

(McGill University: School of Urban Planning 2015)

Town Planning in correlation can be described as the following:

“Town Planning involves both controls of existing and new development, and strategic planning to ensure our resources are carefully managed to match our future needs and expectations. Town Planners develop strategies and design the communities in which we live, work and play. Balancing the built and natural environment, community needs, cultural significance and economic sustainability, planners aim to improve our quality of life and create vibrant communities.”

(Moreton Bay Regional Council 2015)

As with transportation planning, the application of GIS in town and urban planning is

extremely widespread.(Yeh 1999) Planners use GIS as both a spatial database tool as well as for spatial analysis and modelling. (Yeh 1999) Town planners work extensively with various sources of information when processing various land use applications and designing urban areas. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007) They need to take into account factors such as geology, environmental conditions, existing infrastructure, etc. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007) As such the following GIS-based applications have proven to be of great benefit to town and regional planning departments within the Gauteng Province of South Africa as an example:

 Data Storage and Retrieval – Planners are able to edit, store and remove information pertaining to land use within a spatial context (GIS environment) whereby allowing them to obtain a spatial perspective to their decisions. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 Spatial overlay of multiple layers – Planners are able to overlay spatial information pertaining to geology, the environment, hydrology, existing and proposed

infrastructures such as roads, water, sanitation and electrical networks. As such the

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Page | 40 planner can make informed decisions as to the design of proposed developments.

(Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 Compatibility of different datasets – GIS allows planners to incorporate non-spatial information such as property ownership, income levels, property market valuations, into a spatial environment. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 Measurements – Due to the ease of scalability within the GIS environment,

measurements between geographic locations can be conducted. (Marais, Hester J. W.

2007)

 Topology – Spatial relationships between geographic features are highly important in terms of spatial planning. The relationship between a proposed road and surrounding properties needs to be investigated and understood. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 Automatic Calculations – The calculation of property and project area extends is vital to planners in terms of design and costing of proposed infrastructure. GIS easily calculates a variety of measurements at the click of a button. (Marais, Hester J. W.

2007)

 Spatial Analysis – Planners need to identify areas where development is not suitable.

The use of buffers at specified extents is very useful in determining locations within a certain distance from a river's floodplain, or proposed sites within noise zones.

(Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 Thematic mapping – The display of spatially calculated results allows planners the ability to display information in such a way that it creates reference and proof to the proposed design. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 Additional Data – GIS allows for the attachment of files such as photos, reports, tables and graphs to be linked to spatial features. This functionality is highly important and valuable to planners as it saves time from site visits and, therefore, improves productivity within the workplace. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

 3D Analysis – the 3-dimensional modelling capabilities available to GIS packages enables planners with the ability to create a virtual fly-through of their proposed developments. This is highly useful for presentation purposes throughout the planner’s project timelines. (Marais, Hester J. W. 2007)

Most of the literature regarding GIS applications within the planning profession identify GIS as a highly important and useful tool within land zoning and land use management. Land Zoning refers to the classification of land based on the structural usage present on land parcels. (University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire 2015) The most common classifications of zoning are Commercial, Industrial, Residential and Agricultural.(University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire 2015) In terms of Land Use Management, one can describe it as a system of “legal requirements and regulations that apply to land in order to achieve desirable and

harmonious development of the built environment.” (City of Johannesburg 2015) Both of these skills in planning relate closely to how land is not only used and developed on but also how land parcels are perceived in relation to other neighbouring areas. Before any structure has been developed, there is already a preconceived perception of specific land parcels. A

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Page | 41 vacant property may not have a particular use at the moment, yet it will be zoned as either commercial or residential, as such the human perception of that vacant plot is not based on its current state but more on its potential to what could be developed. Within GIS, through overlaying proposed plans for land use and zoning, the perception of that land is altered. We view land parcels based on a particular thematic colour used to represent either its zoning or current land use.

2.6 Conclusion

This literature review has tapped on various facets of GIS, from the evolution of cartography to various concepts of space, and lastly focusing on how GIS is used and viewed in most segments of society. A common trend has arisen from the literary research that has been conducted regarding the perception of space and GIS. This trend is focused on transport and movement through space having an impact on space perception and, therefore, impacting on the advancement on how we study space through GIS. The change of cartographic methods had much to do with societal changes but most importantly through travelling across countries, continents and across oceans. This trend is most common in the various concepts of space that have been discussed where travel or motion through space induces a perception of that space. With the development of Google Earth, however, creating a perception of another country or part of the world does not require a physical motion from one point to another. One simply zooms in and out of an extent or searches for a city anywhere in the world. The user does not physically move. However, their virtual interaction with the Google Earth layout is quite easily transported to where ever they desire on the system. One is also able to note that the applications of GIS that have been highlighted in this thesis so far apply to tools that allow non-GIS experts the ability to view the world digitally and as such gain a glimpse or a certain level of perception of other parts of the world by viewing maps.

Technology is on a never ending path, and one does not know for sure where GIS will end up in the future. As with big data and crowdsourced information stored in the “cloud”, to what limit will GIS-based technology extend?

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3 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

For this thesis, a qualitative methodology was used as a means of collecting data. The qualitative data collected was divided up into two main components. These components consisted of Primary and Secondary data. Secondary data was the first of the components to be collected and consisted of research of the theoretical literature that has been explained in the previous chapter. Primary data was collected by means of social media based

investigations through preliminary questions posted on the Professional networking website

“LinkedIn” as well as the design and publishing of an online-based survey consisting of questions aimed at understanding how people (both GIS and Non-GIS individuals) are affected by GIS-based tools. Primary data collection was also collected through the attendance of a webinar (Web-based seminar) regarding the position of GI Science within Citizen Science, hosted by UNIGIS International.

The secondary data that was collected as a means of creating a theoretical foundation, upon which the primary data would be analysed. The theoretical literature was also used as a means of identifying spatially based concepts through which the collection of primary data would be supported and structured.

3.2 Data Collection

3.2.1 Secondary Data Collection

The data collection processes began with investigating and researching the literature that currently exists on pertaining to geographic concepts of space and place including a brief explanation of what is understood by the term “GIS”. The literature collected consisted of a number of various resources such as:

 Published Journal Articles

 News Media publications

 Books

 Websites

 Maps

These resources pertained to various fields of study, including the following:

 Engineering – Transportation and Asset Management

 Urban/Town Planning

 Psychology

 Geography

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 GIS

To gain a solid foundation for the basis of the primary data collection process, an

understanding of how geographic space is perceived was required. In order to obtain this understanding, research into various concepts of space was conducted. This process began with understanding how perceptions of geographic space have evolved. Developments in cartography were the perfect medium through which an understanding of geographic space perception was influenced and has itself influenced how we see the world. Factors such as travelling and exploration, culture and tradition, religion and spirituality, politics and trade, and lastly science influenced the way in which cartography shaped and illustrated how we perceive the world around us. These findings have set the foundation upon which various concepts of space have been formulated. These include:

 (Lynch 1960)“Image of the City” - “environmental images” play a major role in social development, emotional security, experiences, as well as population movement within a given space or environment. (Lynch 1960)

 Ittelson (1973), which investigated the space of objects and environmental space.

(Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997). The space of objects referred to those that are smaller than the average human body such as a plate, an ornament, painting, etc.

(Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997) Environments however were considered to completely contain the objects but also drive people through space. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

 Canter (1977) proposed a relatively similar model of space which distinguished the difference between Object Space and the Space of Places. (Freundschuh and Egenhofer 1997)

 (Downs and Stea 1977) proposed that “trans-perceptual space” cannot be perceived from a single experience, but should rather be experienced through repeated

experiences so as to gain a full perception of space/environment. (Downs and Stea 1977)

 Siegal (1981) recognised a third scale of space to distinguish that which is too large to be fully perceived and experienced by navigation alone, but rather would require the assistance of hard copy maps. (Liben, Patterson, and Newcombe 1981)

 Garling and Gollege considered the three scales of space as (small, medium and large) as ranging from the size of a single room, property extent to the neighbourhood, to city sized spaces and larger. (Gärling and Golledge 1989)

 Mandler’s (1983) model of space also constituted both small, medium and large scales of space.(Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) Items of small scale would consist of a table, chairs or small scaled models of larger areas. (Weinert and Perlmutter 2013) Medium scaled spaces would include that of a room and large scale spaces would refer to anything larger than a house. As such perception of these spaces would be gathered through navigation. (Weinert and Perlmutter 2013)