Online Resource 1 Journal: Landscape Ecology Title: Cumulative effects of infrastructure and human disturbance: a case study with reindeer

Online Resource 1

Journal: Landscape Ecology

Title: Cumulative effects of infrastructure and human disturbance: a case study with reindeer

1 Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindern, P.O. Box 1066, 0316 Oslo, Norway

2 Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432, Ås, Norway

*Corresponding author: Diress Tsegaye

Address for correspondence (Tel: +47 22854576; Fax: +47 22 85 47 26; E-mail: d.t.alemu@ibv.uio.no)

Table S1 Number of real GPS locations and random points at different distance intervals used in the final analysis. The smallest distance interval (0-0.25 km) includes the entire dataset, while each distance interval after that excludes all data that have disturbances within the preceding distance interval, e.g. 1-2 km includes all data except positions less than 1 km from infrastructures.

Season 0-0.25 km 0.25-1 km 1-2 km 2-3 km

Real Random Real Random Real Random Real Random

Winter 157778 166445 135714 136911 76929 79088 24570 27017

Spring 92185 92185 75638 75148 41157 43690 16191 17576

Snow free 133419 133419 119871 111623 80754 67382 37281 28314

Total 383382 392049 331223 323682 198840 190160 78042 72907

Table S2 Vegetation types and classification into five main groups in Ildgruben.

Vegetation

class Vegetation type Main groups

1 Coniferous forest - dense tree layer Others

2 Coniferous and mixed forests - open tree layer Others

3 Deciduous forest Lichen and deciduous forest

4 Low herb deciduous forest Lichen and deciduous forest

5 Tall herb and fern forest Lichen and deciduous forest

6 Blueberry and small fern birch forest Lichen and deciduous forest

7 Crowberry birch forest Lichen and deciduous forest

8 Lichen rich birch forest Lichen and deciduous forest

9 Tussock bog with low herbs Others

10 Bog with tall herbs Others

11 Swamp with open plant cover Others

12 Exposed ridge and rock, impediment Rocks, snow patches and glaciers

13 Grass and wood rush ridge Other ridges

14 Ridge with heather Other ridges

15 Lichen moor Other ridges

16 Lichen ridge, leeward side Heath

17 Heather moor with low bushes Heath

18 Herb rich meadow Heath

19 Grass and dwarf willow snow bed Rocks, snow patches and glaciers

20 Extreme snow beds Rocks, snow patches and glaciers

21 Glacier and snow covered soil Rocks, snow patches and glaciers

22 Smaller bodies of water* Others

23 Cultivated fields** NA

24 Town and populated areas** NA

25 Un-classified/ shadow Others

* Only small bodies of water was considered available, i.e. larger lakes was not included. ** Not included in the

data set since not available within the available home ranges.

Table S3 Candidate models for resource selection function estimation for each disturbance distance interval in each season. In all the models, animal year was included as a random factor to account for the variation between each individual year in each season. We chose the most parsimonious model (i.e. when ∆AICc = 0) to predict reindeer habitat use. AICc refers to Akaike Information Criterion for small sample sizes, and ∆AICc refers to change in AICc.

Model 0-0.25 km 0.25-1 km 1-2 km 2.3 km

AICc ∆AICc AICc ∆AICc AICc ∆AICc AICc ∆AICc

1. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Slope + Slope^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 103044

3 0.00 873833.2 0.00 512939.1 0.00 193882.6 208.02 2. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Slope + Slope^2) + Aspect + Aspect^2 103295

7 2514.33 875991.7 2158.49 513995 1055.88 194103 428.51

3. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) + Slope + Slope^2 103105

1 608.27 874311.6 478.4 513500.1 561.05 194363.3 688.75

4. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Slope + Slope^2+ Aspect + Aspect^2) + Elevation + Elevation^2 103761

0 7167.53 878240.2 4407.03 513991.7 1052.59 194121.4 446.88 5. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Slope + Slope^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) + Habitat 103191

4 1471.02 875160.1 1326.9 513673.6 734.49 193931.8 257.22 6. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Slope + Slope^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 103907

2 8629.05 880500 6666.85 516029.7 3090.6 194968.6

1294.0 5 7. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Slope + Slope^2) 103763

9 7196.37 880513.8 6680.65 516840.6 3901.53 195199.3

1524.7 9 8- Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 103411

3 3670.09 877244.6 3411.49 515292.6 2353.55 193674.5 0.00 9- Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Slope + Slope^2+ Aspect + Aspect^2) 103890

9 8465.94 880004.9 6171.79 516531.2 3592.06 195298

1623.4 6 10. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2) 104112

5 10681.8 883726.2 9893.02 519099.6 6160.55 195863.9 2189.3

11. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Slope + Slope^2) 104606

4 15621.32 886707.6 12874.45 520609.9 7670.81 196658

2983.4 4

12. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 104295

1 12508.49 883914.7 10081.51 519159.2 6220.09 196065.3

2390.7 9 13. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation +Elevation^2 + Slope + Slope^2) 104663

3 16190.62 887718.2 13885.06 520131.5 7192.38 196654.6 2980.0 8 14. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 104281

5 12372.37 883901.6 10068.47 518355.1 5416.05 195733.4

2058.8 4 15. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Slope + Slope^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 105708

5 26641.94 892724.8 18891.68 523402 10462.93 198127.8

4453.2 8

16. Season*(Habitat + Intensity +Intensity^2) 104979

2 19349.56 890271.4 16438.23 523013.7 10074.66 197370.5

3695.9 6

17. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Aspect + Aspect^2) 106122

1 30778.39 896700.4 22867.25 526069.7 13130.62 198934.6

5260.0 3

18. Season*(Aspect + Aspect^2) 106701

8 36575.07 899223.2 25390.03 528054.8 15115.75 199264.1 5589.5 3

19. Aspect + Aspect^2) 106890

5 38461.99 900838.5 27005.35 529978.7 17039.57 201054.5

7379.9 6

20. Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Slope + Slope^2) 106515

2 34708.76 900513.9 26680.73 527892.2 14953.17 199634

5959.4 7

21. Season*(Slope + Slope^2) 107097

3 40530.65 903035.7 29202.52 529844.6 16905.47 199929.6

6255.0 5

22. Slope + Slope^2 107238

6 41943.16 904510.8 30677.67 532149.6 19210.51 201550.7 7876.1 5

23 Season*(Intensity +Intensity^2 + Elevation + Elevation^2) 105034

0 19896.8 891146.1 17312.97 522571.8 9632.75 197509.6

3835.0 2

24. Season*(Elevation + Elevation^2) 105238

2 21939 891250.9 17417.74 524420.3 11481.26 197575.9

3901.3 3

25. Elevation + Elevation^2 106661

8 36175.34 901500.4 27667.27 529924.6 16985.55 200775.2

7100.6 8

26. Intensity +Intensity^2 106960

4 39161.6 906125.5 32292.38 533245.2 20306.11 202065

8390.4 8

27. Habitat 105965

3 29210.05 897412.2 23579.08 529669.1 16729.98 200385.6 6711.0 9

28. Season 107471

9 44276.5 906786.5 32953.31 532399.7 19460.63 200700.4

7025.8 7

29. Null 107487

7 44434.71 907137.8 33304.59 533658.6 20719.5 202137

8462.4 3

Table S4 Estimates of reindeer resource section in relation to cumulative disturbance at different disturbance distance intervals (within 0.25, 0.25-1, 1-2, and 2-3 km) during winter, spring and snow free seasons from 2011-2018 in the Ildgruben reindeer district in Nordland, Norway. “Intensity” refers to the sum of disturbance intensity levels for all infrastructure and trails within each distance interval.

Effects 0-0.25 km 0.25-1 km 1-2 km 2-3 km

β SE z p β SE z p β SE z p β SE z p

Intercept -0.613 0.014 -45.301 <0.001 -0.603 0.018 -34.102 <0.001 -0.504 0.036 -14.128 <0.001 -1.159 0.086 -13.409 <0.001

Spring 0.547 0.018 30.084 <0.001 0.627 0.023 27.763 <0.001 0.581 0.039 14.952 <0.001 0.991 0.088 11.211 <0.001

Summer 0.499 0.019 26.551 <0.001 0.622 0.022 27.676 <0.001 0.643 0.037 17.495 <0.001 0.913 0.084 10.892 <0.001

RSG 0.580 0.014 40.597 <0.001 0.570 0.016 34.766 <0.001 0.383 0.027 14.228 <0.001 0.739 0.068 10.875 <0.001

Heath 0.790 0.012 63.857 <0.001 0.785 0.015 53.910 <0.001 0.658 0.025 25.898 <0.001 1.072 0.067 16.003 <0.001

Other ridges 0.902 0.013 66.975 <0.001 0.892 0.016 56.665 <0.001 0.690 0.027 25.927 <0.001 1.043 0.068 15.282 <0.001

Others 0.431 0.018 24.387 <0.001 0.505 0.021 24.167 <0.001 0.466 0.037 12.598 <0.001 0.592 0.092 6.428 <0.001

Intensity -0.059 0.008 -7.242 <0.001 0.084 0.008 10.329 <0.001 0.108 0.010 11.242 <0.001 0.103 0.016 6.326 <0.001

Intensity² -0.008 0.001 -5.340 <0.001 -0.009 0.002 -4.543 <0.001 0.041 0.003 13.895 <0.001 -0.003 0.007 -0.399 0.690

Elevation -0.066 0.005 -12.283 <0.001 -0.073 0.006 -12.272 <0.001 -0.040 0.008 -4.977 <0.001 -0.203 0.014 -14.805 <0.001

Elevation² -0.047 0.003 -17.253 <0.001 -0.059 0.003 -18.071 <0.001 -0.179 0.006 -31.748 <0.001 -0.208 0.010 -20.071 <0.001

Slope -0.183 0.005 -39.715 <0.001 -0.190 0.005 -37.712 <0.001 -0.218 0.007 -32.076 <0.001

Slope² 0.007 0.002 3.114 0.002 0.004 0.002 1.947 0.052 -0.017 0.003 -4.961 <0.001

Aspect 0.207 0.004 56.120 <0.001 0.233 0.004 57.630 <0.001 0.253 0.006 45.895 <0.001 0.293 0.010 28.677 <0.001

Aspect² -0.041 0.004 -9.534 <0.001 -0.037 0.005 -8.106 <0.001 -0.035 0.006 -5.750 <0.001 -0.049 0.011 -4.435 <0.001

Spring × RSG -0.762 0.024 -32.271 <0.001 -0.804 0.027 -30.180 <0.001 -0.841 0.040 -20.895 <0.001 -1.087 0.087 -12.461 <0.001

Spring × Heath -0.451 0.019 -23.436 <0.001 -0.456 0.022 -20.427 <0.001 -0.418 0.036 -11.550 <0.001 -0.798 0.083 -9.553 <0.001

Spring × Other ridges -0.639 0.021 -30.360 <0.001 -0.671 0.024 -27.676 <0.001 -0.645 0.038 -16.765 <0.001 -0.876 0.087 -10.108 <0.001

Spring ×Others -0.450 0.028 -15.851 <0.001 -0.492 0.033 -14.773 <0.001 -0.439 0.054 -8.079 <0.001 -0.763 0.119 -6.402 <0.001

Summer × RSG -0.343 0.022 -15.495 <0.001 -0.351 0.025 -14.114 <0.001 -0.110 0.037 -2.940 0.003 -0.193 0.083 -2.332 0.020

Summer × Heath -0.366 0.019 -18.919 <0.001 -0.386 0.022 -17.456 <0.001 -0.204 0.035 -5.831 <0.001 -0.408 0.080 -5.071 <0.001

Summer × Other ridges -0.448 0.021 -21.379 <0.001 -0.459 0.024 -19.224 <0.001 -0.196 0.037 -5.314 <0.001 -0.249 0.083 -2.998 0.003

Summer × Others -0.471 0.029 -16.394 <0.001 -0.610 0.033 -18.563 <0.001 -0.516 0.051 -10.106 <0.001 -0.439 0.111 -3.951 <0.001

Spring × Intensity -0.079 0.014 -5.616 <0.001 -0.007 0.015 -0.503 0.615 -0.205 0.017 -11.745 <0.001 -0.041 0.025 -1.633 0.102

Summer × Intensity 0.019 0.012 1.608 0.108 -0.113 0.011 -10.116 <0.001 -0.142 0.013 -10.804 <0.001 -0.167 0.020 -8.435 <0.001

Spring × Intensity² 0.005 0.003 1.984 0.047 -0.024 0.005 -5.302 <0.001 0.006 0.009 0.754 0.451 -0.030 0.015 -1.942 0.052

Summer × Intensity² -0.001 0.002 -0.569 0.570 0.010 0.003 3.551 <0.001 -0.049 0.005 -9.534 <0.001 0.032 0.009 3.590 <0.001

Spring × Elevation -0.134 0.009 -15.087 <0.001 -0.096 0.010 -9.628 <0.001 -0.132 0.014 -9.698 <0.001 -0.080 0.021 -3.765 <0.001

Summer × Elevation 0.613 0.009 68.316 <0.001 0.510 0.009 54.817 <0.001 0.255 0.011 22.709 <0.001 0.218 0.017 12.761 <0.001

Spring × Elevation² 0.008 0.004 1.747 0.081 0.009 0.005 1.647 0.100 0.063 0.009 6.776 <0.001 0.175 0.015 11.500 <0.001

Summer × Elevation² -0.190 0.004 -42.415 <0.001 -0.151 0.005 -31.666 <0.001 0.018 0.007 2.645 0.008 0.067 0.012 5.768 <0.001

Spring × Slope 0.154 0.008 20.183 <0.001 0.122 0.008 14.528 <0.001 0.141 0.011 12.323 <0.001

Summer × Slope 0.136 0.007 19.480 <0.001 0.152 0.008 20.193 <0.001 0.210 0.010 21.726 <0.001

Spring × Slope² -0.049 0.004 -11.962 <0.001 -0.042 0.005 -9.126 <0.001 0.000 0.006 -0.034 0.973

Summer × Slope² -0.058 0.003 -17.203 <0.001 -0.058 0.004 -16.058 <0.001 -0.030 0.005 -6.197 <0.001

Spring × Aspect 0.104 0.006 16.797 <0.001 0.080 0.007 11.731 <0.001 0.050 0.009 5.375 <0.001 -0.024 0.016 -1.500 0.134

Summer × Aspect -0.202 0.006 -36.399 <0.001 -0.218 0.006 -36.328 <0.001 -0.209 0.008 -26.770 <0.001 -0.239 0.013 -17.811 <0.001

Spring × Aspect² 0.039 0.007 5.543 <0.001 0.037 0.008 4.715 <0.001 0.033 0.010 3.223 0.001 0.021 0.017 1.249 0.211

Summer × Aspect² 0.023 0.006 3.611 <0.001 0.018 0.007 2.617 0.009 0.012 0.009 1.402 0.161 0.024 0.014 1.687 0.092

2 Represent a squared term. RSG refers to “rocks, snow patches and glaciers” habitat type. Other ridges refers to “grass and wood rush ridge, ridge with heath, and lichen moor”. Others refers to “conifer forest, marsh, cultivated land, towns, and unclassified/shadow. “Lichen and deciduous forest” used as a reference for the habitat type categorical variable, and winter was used as a reference for season. For details on the habitat types, see Online Resource 1, Table 2

Table S5 Estimates of reindeer resource section in relation to cumulative disturbance at different scales (within 0.25, 0-1, 0-2, and 0-3 km) during winter, spring and snow free seasons from 2011-2018 in the Ildgruben reindeer district in Nordland, Norway. “Intensity” refers to the sum of disturbance intensity levels for all infrastructure and trails within each distance interval.

Effects 0-0.25 km 0-1 km 0-2 km 0-3 km

β SE z p β SE z p β SE z p β SE z p

Intercept -0.613 0.014 -45.301 <0.001 -0.635 0.014 -46.614 <0.001 -0.682 0.014 -47.380 <0.001 -0.700 0.015 -45.672 <0.001

Spring 0.547 0.018 30.084 <0.001 0.603 0.019 32.477 <0.001 0.697 0.019 37.107 <0.001 0.701 0.019 37.678 <0.001

Summer 0.499 0.019 26.551 <0.001 0.525 0.019 27.565 <0.001 0.589 0.019 30.677 <0.001 0.621 0.019 32.556 <0.001

RSG 0.580 0.014 40.597 <0.001 0.613 0.014 42.789 <0.001 0.644 0.014 44.890 <0.001 0.663 0.014 46.344 <0.001

Heath 0.790 0.012 63.857 <0.001 0.822 0.012 66.404 <0.001 0.842 0.012 68.107 <0.001 0.843 0.012 68.361 <0.001

Other ridges 0.902 0.013 66.975 <0.001 0.934 0.013 69.256 <0.001 0.964 0.013 71.555 <0.001 0.961 0.013 71.603 <0.001

Others 0.431 0.018 24.387 <0.001 0.455 0.018 25.772 <0.001 0.414 0.018 23.199 <0.001 0.445 0.018 25.111 <0.001

Intensity -0.059 0.008 -7.242 <0.001 -0.002 0.008 -0.279 0.780 0.105 0.006 16.906 <0.001 0.177 0.005 35.015 <0.001

Intensity² -0.008 0.001 -5.340 <0.001 -0.003 0.002 -1.303 0.193 0.039 0.003 14.690 <0.001 0.026 0.003 9.390 <0.001

Elevation -0.066 0.005 -12.283 <0.001 -0.056 0.006 -9.957 <0.001 0.019 0.006 3.293 <0.001 0.031 0.006 5.413 <0.001

Elevation² -0.047 0.003 -17.253 <0.001 -0.055 0.003 -19.939 <0.001 -0.073 0.003 -27.047 <0.001 -0.064 0.003 -23.638 <0.001

Slope -0.183 0.005 -39.715 <0.001 -0.177 0.005 -38.441 <0.001 -0.181 0.005 -39.027 <0.001 -0.184 0.005 -39.659 <0.001

Slope² 0.007 0.002 3.114 0.002 0.005 0.002 2.515 0.012 0.001 0.002 0.637 0.524 0.001 0.002 0.456 0.649

Aspect 0.207 0.004 56.120 <0.001 0.205 0.004 55.541 <0.001 0.206 0.004 55.710 <0.001 0.213 0.004 57.630 <0.001

Aspect² -0.041 0.004 -9.534 <0.001 -0.038 0.004 -9.019 <0.001 -0.038 0.004 -8.862 <0.001 -0.038 0.004 -8.902 <0.001

Spring × RSG -0.762 0.024 -32.271 <0.001 -0.793 0.024 -33.453 <0.001 -0.805 0.024 -34.008 <0.001 -0.803 0.024 -34.030 <0.001

Spring × Heath -0.451 0.019 -23.436 <0.001 -0.477 0.019 -24.708 <0.001 -0.470 0.019 -24.467 <0.001 -0.448 0.019 -23.405 <0.001

Spring × Other ridges -0.639 0.021 -30.360 <0.001 -0.669 0.021 -31.598 <0.001 -0.675 0.021 -32.057 <0.001 -0.646 0.021 -30.838 <0.001

Spring ×Others -0.450 0.028 -15.851 <0.001 -0.441 0.028 -15.571 <0.001 -0.391 0.028 -13.750 <0.001 -0.430 0.028 -15.151 <0.001

Summer × RSG -0.343 0.022 -15.495 <0.001 -0.375 0.022 -16.931 <0.001 -0.388 0.022 -17.559 <0.001 -0.397 0.022 -18.000 <0.001

Summer × Heath -0.366 0.019 -18.919 <0.001 -0.395 0.019 -20.350 <0.001 -0.394 0.019 -20.439 <0.001 -0.384 0.019 -19.931 <0.001

Summer × Other ridges -0.448 0.021 -21.379 <0.001 -0.480 0.021 -22.800 <0.001 -0.488 0.021 -23.299 <0.001 -0.471 0.021 -22.579 <0.001 Summer × Others -0.471 0.029 -16.394 <0.001 -0.495 0.029 -17.210 <0.001 -0.446 0.029 -15.477 <0.001 -0.474 0.029 -16.498 <0.001

Spring × Intensity -0.079 0.014 -5.616 <0.001 -0.043 0.013 -3.181 0.001 -0.155 0.010 -15.135 <0.001 -0.295 0.009 -33.644 <0.001

Summer × Intensity 0.019 0.012 1.608 0.108 -0.046 0.011 -4.249 <0.001 -0.148 0.009 -16.812 <0.001 -0.216 0.007 -29.837 <0.001

Spring × Intensity² 0.005 0.003 1.984 0.047 -0.037 0.005 -6.985 <0.001 -0.148 0.007 -19.771 <0.001 -0.144 0.007 -19.833 <0.001

Summer × Intensity² -0.001 0.002 -0.569 0.570 -0.005 0.004 -1.383 0.167 -0.048 0.005 -10.317 <0.001 -0.038 0.005 -8.116 <0.001

Spring × Elevation -0.134 0.009 -15.087 <0.001 -0.144 0.009 -15.539 <0.001 -0.217 0.010 -22.693 <0.001 -0.236 0.009 -24.995 <0.001

Summer × Elevation 0.613 0.009 68.316 <0.001 0.591 0.009 63.325 <0.001 0.513 0.010 53.140 <0.001 0.506 0.009 53.331 <0.001

Spring × Elevation² 0.008 0.004 1.747 0.081 0.014 0.005 3.192 0.001 0.035 0.005 7.821 <0.001 0.027 0.005 6.018 <0.001

Summer × Elevation² -0.190 0.004 -42.415 <0.001 -0.179 0.005 -39.733 <0.001 -0.161 0.005 -35.626 <0.001 -0.172 0.005 -38.097 <0.001

Spring × Slope 0.154 0.008 20.183 <0.001 0.153 0.008 20.070 <0.001 0.152 0.008 19.886 <0.001 0.155 0.008 20.281 <0.001

Summer × Slope 0.136 0.007 19.480 <0.001 0.133 0.007 19.104 <0.001 0.139 0.007 19.804 <0.001 0.141 0.007 20.060 <0.001

Spring × Slope² -0.049 0.004 -11.962 <0.001 -0.050 0.004 -12.336 <0.001 -0.046 0.004 -11.175 <0.001 -0.046 0.004 -11.184 <0.001 Summer × Slope² -0.058 0.003 -17.203 <0.001 -0.057 0.003 -17.023 <0.001 -0.054 0.003 -16.016 <0.001 -0.054 0.003 -15.949 <0.001

Spring × Aspect 0.104 0.006 16.797 <0.001 0.105 0.006 16.937 <0.001 0.101 0.006 16.268 <0.001 0.089 0.006 14.265 <0.001

Summer × Aspect -0.202 0.006 -36.399 <0.001 -0.198 0.006 -35.593 <0.001 -0.202 0.006 -36.285 <0.001 -0.213 0.006 -38.254 <0.001

Spring × Aspect² 0.039 0.007 5.543 <0.001 0.035 0.007 4.997 <0.001 0.037 0.007 5.176 <0.001 0.041 0.007 5.803 <0.001

Summer × Aspect² 0.023 0.006 3.611 <0.001 0.020 0.006 3.215 0.001 0.020 0.006 3.182 0.001 0.021 0.006 3.290 0.001

2 Represent a squared term. RSG refers to “rocks, snow patches and glaciers” habitat type. Other ridges refers to “grass and wood rush ridge, ridge with heath, and lichen moor”. Others refers to “conifer forest, marsh, cultivated land, towns, and unclassified/shadow. “Lichen and deciduous forest” used as a reference for the habitat type categorical variable, and winter was used as a reference for season. For details on the habitat types, see Online Resource 1, Table S2