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Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin

I I M / U M P 81 - 22

J a p a n e s e M u l t i n a t i o n a l s i n Eu r o p e : M a n a g e m e n t P h i l o s o p h y , ‘P e r s o n n e l P o l i c y

and E m p l o y e e S a t i s f a c t i o n M a k o t o Takamiya. f W o l f R e i t s p e r g e r

M. T a k a m i y a w a s p r o f e s s o r , T o k y o U n i v e r s i t y , a n d f o r m e r l y a f e l l o w of the IIM: W. R e i t s p e r g e r has r e s e a r c h e d a t t h e L o n d o n S c h o o l o f E c o n o m i c s a n d P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , -and v i s i t e d t h e IIM.

I S S N Nr. 0 7 2 0 - 4 9 1 4

Platz der Luftbrücke 1 - 3 1OOO Berlin 42

Telefon (030) 69041

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A B S T R A C T

T h i s p a p e r r e p o r t s r e s u l t s f r o m a c o m p a r a t i v e p r o j e c t o.n p e r s o n n e l p o l i c y a n d i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s of s u b s i d i a r i e s of J a p a n e s e , A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h m u l t i n a t i o n a l e l e c t r o n i c s

m a n u f a c t u r e r s in B r i t a i n . T h e p r o j e c t h a d b e e n c o n d u c t e d in the

" f u n c t i o n i n g of l a b o u r m a r k e t s a n d i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s "

g r o u p of I I M / L a b o u r M a r k e t P o l i c y b y Mako'to T a k a m i y a in c o l l a ­ b o r a t i o n w i t h r e s e a r c h e r s i n the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e for E c o n o m i c s a n d R e l a t e d D i s c i p l i n e s of t h e L o n d o n S c h o o l of E c o n o m i c s a n d P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e . M a k o t o T a k a m i y a d i e d at t h e e n d of t h e f i e l d w o r k p h a s e a n d l e f t h i s c o l l e a g u e s w i t h a f e e l i n g of p e r s o n a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l l o s s ; h i s w o r k is

c o n t i n u e d in h i s s p i r i t a n d m e m o r y b y t h o s e w h o w o r k e d w i t h him.

J a p a n ' s a s c e n d a n c y w i t h i n t h e w o r l d ' s m a r k e t s h a s r o c k e d t h e f i n a n c i a l a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o m p l a c e n c y of m a n y W e s t e r n n a t i o n s , w h o n o w f i n d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e p o s i t i o n of h a v i n g to c o m p e t e w i t h t h e n e w i n d u s t r i a l g i a n t n o t o n l y in f o r e i g n a r e a s t h e y o n c e d o m i n a t e d , b u t a l s o in t h e i r o w n d o m e s t i c m a r k e t s as w e ll. T h e i n d u s t r i a l s u c c e s s t h a t J a p a n has e x p e r i e n c e d has o p e n e d n e w f i e l d s in t h e a r e a of b u s i n e s s r e s e a r c h a n d g e n e r a t e d p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in "the J a p a n e s e w a y o f d o i n g t h i n g s . " O n e s p e c i f i c a r e a of c o n c e r n h a s b e e n t h a t of j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d its r e l a t i o n to p r o d u c t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e s t u d y c a r r i e d o u t in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m i n v o l v i n g o n e A m e r i c a n , a n d two i d e a l l y - m a t c h e d J a p a n e s e s u b s i d i a r i e s and o n e B r i t i s h c o m p a n y , a l l i n v o l v e d in

t e l e v i s i o n m a n u f a c t u r i n g r e f u t e s c e r t a i n s t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t J a p a n e s e m a n a g e m e n t . F i r s t , the s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h a t the two J a p a n e s e c o m p a n i e s e m p l o y e d distinc't p e r s o n n e l p o l i c i e s w h i c h w e r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in job s a t i s f a c t i o n

r e g i s t e r e d b y t h e i r e m p l o y e e s . Sec o n d , it s h o w e d t h a t

p a t e r n a l i s t i c p e r s o n n e l p o l i c i e s i n s t i t u t e d b y o n e J a p a n e s e c o m p a n y w e r e n o t p r e - c o n d i t i o n s for its h i g h p r o d u c t i v e

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Z U S A M M E N F A S S U N G

I n d e m A u f s a t z w e r d e n d i e E r g e b n i s s e e i n e s v e r g l e i c h e n d e n P r o j e k t e s ü b e r P e r s o n a l p o l i t i k u n d A r b e i t g e b e r - A r b e i t n e h m e r - B e z i e h u n g e n d e r N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n j a p a n i s c h e r , a m e r i k a n i s c h e r u n d b r i t i s c h e r m u l t i n a t i o n a l e r E l e k t r o n i k - H e r s t e l l e r in G r o ß - b t r i t a n n i e n d a r g e s t e l l t . D a s P r o j e k t w a r v o n M a k o t o T a k a m i y a in d e r F o r s c h u n g s g r u p p e " F u n k t i o n s w e i s e v o n A r b e i t s m ä r k t e n "

d e s I I M V / A r b e i t s m a r k t p o l i t i k d u r c h g e f ü h r t w o r d e n , u n d z w a r in Z u s a m m e n a r b e i t m i t F o r s c h e r n im I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e for

E c o n o m i c s a n d R e l a t e d D i s c i p l i n e s d e r L o n d o n S c h o o l of

E c o n o m i c s and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e . M a k o t o T a k a m i y a s t a r b ü b e r ­ r a s c h e n d a m E n d e d e r F e l d a r b e i t s p h a s e u n d h i n t e r l i e ß b e i a l l e n K o l l e g e n d a s G e f ü h l e i n e s t i e f g r e i f e n d e n p e r s ö n l i c h e n u n d

f a c h l i c h e n V e r l u s t e s . E s w u r d e v e r s u c h t d a s P r o j e k t in s e i n e m S i n n e f o r t z u s e t z e n .

J a p a n s A u f s t i e g auf d e n W e l t m ä r k t e n h a t d i e f i n a n z i e l l e u n d t e c h n i s c h e S e l b s t g e f ä l l i g k e i t v i e l e r w e s t l i c h e r L ä n d e r e r ­

s c h ü t t e r t , d i e n u n m i t e i n e r n e u e n W i r t s c h a f t s m a c h t n i c h t . n u r ; i m A u ß e n h a n d e l , s o n d e r n a u c h auf h e i m i s c h e n M ä r k t e n k o n k u r r i e r e n m ü s s e n . D e r a u ß e r o r d e n t l i c h e W i r t s c h a f t s e r f o l g J a p a n s f ü h r t e

zu n e u e n A n s ä t z e n in d e r b e t r i e b s w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n F o r s c h u n g u n d h a t e i n b e s o n d e r e s I n t e r e s s e für j a p a n i s c h e H a n d l u n g s w e i s e n h e r v o r g e b r a c h t . E i n s p e z i e l l e s I n t e r e s s e g i l t d e r A r b e i t s z u ­ f r i e d e n h e i t u n d i h r e r B e z i e h u n g zur P r o d u k t i o n s l e i s t u n g . D i e v o r l i e g e n d e A r b e i t ü b e r e i n e a m e r i k a n i s c h e u n d z w e i j a p a n i s c h e N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n s o w i e e i n b r i t i s c h e s U n t e r n e h m e n in d e r F e r n ­

s e h g e r ä t e h e r s t e l l u n g s t e l l t g e w i s s e S t e r e o t y p e n ü b e r j a p a n i -

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s c h e s M a n a g e m e n t als f a l s c h h e r a u s . E r s t e n s z e i g t d i e S t u d i e d a ß d i e j a p a n i s c h e n U n t e r n e h m e n u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e P e r s o n a l ­ p o l i t i k e n b e t r e i b e n , d i e s i c h a u c h in d e n U n t e r s c h i e d e n h i n ­ s i c h t l i c h d e r A r b e i t s z u f r i e d e n h e i t ze i g e n . Z w e i t e n s z e i g t sie, d a ß d i e p a t e r n a l i s t i s c h e P e r s o n a l p o l i t i k d e s e i n e n j a p a n i s c h e n U n t e r n e h m e n s n i c h t d i e V o r b e d i n g u n g für s e i n e P r o d u k t i o n s l e i s t u n g ist, a b e r in m a n c h e r H i n s i c h t d i e Z u ­ s t i m m u n g d e r B e s c h ä f t i g t e n fand.

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i n v a l u a b l e s u p p o r t in f i n i s h i n g t h i s study: M a k o t o T a k a m i y a ' s f a t h e r , P r o f e s s o r S u s u m u T a k a m i y a ; Dr. A r n d t -Sorge; Prof.

K e i t h T h u r l e y ; a n d / t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of M a n a g e m e n t a t the W i s s e n s c h f t s z e n t r u m B e r l i n

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L IS T OF' CONTENTS

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I n t r o d u c t i o n 1

M eth o d a n d C a se s 4

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S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s u p e r v i s i o n . 7

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r m 9

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y 11

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p r o m o ti o n 13

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e j o b i t s e l f 15

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h c o - w o r k e r s 17 '

P e r s o n n e l P o l i c y a n d J o b S a t i s f a c t i o n 20

C o n c lu s io n s 31

R e f e r e n c e s 39

A p p e n d ix 41

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INTRODUCTION

J a p a n 's e co n o m ic s u c c e s s an d e x p o r t p r o w e s s h a s draw n t h e a t t e n t i o n o f m a n a g e rs an d s c h o l a r s a l i k e . The f o r m e r , e s p e c i a l l y , h a v e b e e n c o m p e lle d t o c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e

s t r a t e g i e s , p o l i c i e s , an d m a n a g e r i a l p r a c t i c e i n o r d e r t o f i n d ways t o c o u n t e r J a p a n e s e i n t r u s i o n i n t o d o m e s tic a n d i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l m a r k e t s . S c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l an d p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u s i n e s s s c e n e h a v e t r i e d t o u n r a v e l t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e a s o n s f o r J a p a n 's e co n o m ic s u c c e s s a n d h a v e s u g g e s t e d v a r i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t h a v e p r o v e n t o b e n o t o n l y o f a c a d e m ic i n t e r e s t , b u t v a l u a b l e a l s o to W e s te r n g o v e rn m e n ts a n d m a n a g e r s a s t h e y h a v e l e d t o a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f p o l i c i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s a t hom e. W h ile a

f r e q u e n t o b j e c t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y by p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f m an ag em en t) h a s b e e n t h a t ; a m a n a g e r i a l s y s te m w h ic h h a s grow n on t h e

s h o u l d e r s o f a c u l t u r a l a n d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s y s te m a s u n iq u e a s t h e one i n J a p a n m ig h t o f f e r v e r y l i t t l e t h a t i s a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t o f v a r i o u s W e s te r n c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e c e n t move o f J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s t o i n v e s t d i r e c t l y i n t h e W est a n d

t h e r e s u l t a n t s u c c e s s o f t h e s e v e n t u r e s h a v e n e c e s s i t a t e d a s t u d y o f J a p a n e s e - m a n a g e d c o m p a n ie s f a c e d w i t h c o n s t r a i n t s im p o sed b y t h e h o s t e n v ir o n m e n t. T h u s, t h e s t u d y o f J a p a n e s e o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e W est h a s p r o v e n t o b e o f r e l e v a n c e t o t h e W e s te rn p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n c e d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s a p p l i e d to

s i m i l a r c h a l l e n g e s m ig h t s t i m u l a t e m a n a g e r i a l c r e a t i v i t y a n d , i n t u r n , l e a d t o c h a n g e a n d e n h a n c e m e n t o f c o m p e t i t i v e s t r e n g t h o f h o s t o r g a n i s a t i o n s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s t u d i e s o f J a p a n e s e o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e W est a r e s c a r c e . T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y so i n E u ro p e w h e re t h e k n o w le d g e a b o u t J a p a n e s e o r g a n i s a t i o n s i s m a in ly c o n f i n e d t o j o u r n a l i s t i c a c c o u n t s . S p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t i n J a p a n e s e m anu­

f a c t u r i n g s u b s i d i a r i e s i n d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r i e s h a s b e e n s p u r r e d m o s t ly by r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s i n t h e U .S .A . S u p e r i o r q u a l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y l e v e l s b y J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s i n c o m p a ris o n t o l o c a l c o m p a n ie s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c o l o u r TV

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- 2 -

( t e l e v i s i o n ) i n d u s t r y , h a v e b e e n d o c u m e n te d i n v a r i o u s p u b ­ l i s h e d a c c o u n t s . M. J u r a n (197'8: 4 2 ) , f o r e x a m p le , s t a t e s t h a t " o n e o f t h e m o st s t r i k i n g e f f e c t s o f J a p a n e s e t a k e o v e r o f W e s te r n f a c t o r i e s h a s b e e n a s i m u l t a n e o u s im p ro v e m e n t i n q u a l i ­

t y an d p r o d u c t i v i t y . " The d e g r e e o f im p ro v e m e n t a c h i e v e d i n o n e t a k e o v e r i s d o c u m e n te d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s : "T he d e f e c t r a t e p e r 100 t e l e v i s i o n s e t s p a c k e d f e l l fro m 1 5 0 -1 8 0 to 3 - 4 " ( J u r a n , 1 9 7 8 : 4 2 ) . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e h i g h q u a l i t y a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y l e v e l s a r e o n ly p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h s a t i s f a c t i o n l e v e l s o f t h e w o r k f o r c e , w h ic h i s f o s t e r e d by p o l i c i e s m e a n t t o a c h i e v e a " h a p p y f a m i l y a tm o s ­ p h e r e " ( J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 7 ; J o h n s o n a n d O u c h i, 1 9 7 8 ; H a r v e y , 1 9 7 8 ) . A s e r i o u s a t t e m p t t o s t u d y m a n a g e r i a l p r a c t i c e i n E u ro p e i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n tr e f o r E co n o m ics an d R e l a t e d D i s c i p l i n e s ( I . C . E . R . D . ) a t t h e L ondon S c h o o l o f E c o n o m ic s . P a r t o f t h i s s t u d y i n v o l v e s J a p a n e s e , A m e ric a n , a n d B r i t i s h TV m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n t h e U .K ., w h ic h i n

c o n t r a s t t o t h e A m e ric a n s t u d y , e m p h a s iz e s a t t e n t i o n t o d e t a i l , w o rk d i s c i p l i n e , a n d s u p e r i o r i n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l c o o r d i n a t i o n a s

r e a s o n s f o r s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s i n J a p a n e s e U .K . s u b s i ­ d i a r i e s (T a k a m iy a , 1 9 7 9 ) . A n o th e r s t u d y s p e c i f i c a l l y c e n t e r s on t h e o p e r a t o r s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n t o q u a l i t y im p ro v e m e n t i n

J a p a n e s e TV m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n t h e U .K . I t a r g u e s t h a t t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s te m s t o i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t o r s , i n c o n ­ j u n c t i o n w i t h a c o n s i s t e n t r e w a r d s y s te m , l e a d t o a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f q u a l i t y im p ro v e m e n t on t h e o p e r a t o r s ' p a r t ( R e i t s - p e r g e r , 1 9 8 1 ) . W h ereas t h e a b o v e - m e n tio n e d A m e ric a n s t u d i e s e m p h a s iz e human r e l a t i o n s i n e x p l a i n i n g J a p a n e s e q u a l i t y an d p r o d u c t i v i t y , t h e E u ro p e a n a rg u m e n t t e n d s t o e m p h a s iz e com pe­

t e n c e i n p r o d u c t i o n m anagem ent an d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g . M.- T ak am iy a (1 9 7 9 ) h a s i d e n t i f i e d two J a p a n e s e t e l e v i s i o n

m a n u f a c t u r e r s , w h ic h we w i l l s u b s e q u e n t l y r e f e r t o a s J a p a n e s e com pany 1 an d J a p a n e s e com pany 2 , t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y o u t p e r ­ fo rm U .K . and U .S . c o u n t e r p a r t s i n te r m s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y and q u a l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e . I f a h a p p y w o r k f o r c e i s in d e e d a p r e ­ c o n d i t i o n f o r s u p e r i o r p r o d u c t i v e a c h i e v e m e n t s , t h e n we w o u ld e x p e c t t o f i n d :

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1) higher satisfaction levels in these firms than in the British and American firms;

2) similar levels of satisfaction in both Japanese firms in the various dimensions of job satisfaction as the firm it­

self, pay, promotion, and supervision (Cross, 1979); and 3) similar personnel policies and practises in both Japanese

companies, which would account for the similar patterns of satisfaction between the companies.

Data collected by the various researchers of

the International Centre for Economics and Related Disciplines at the London School of Economics will be used for analysis.

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4

METHOD AND CASES

F o u r c o l o u r t e l e v i s i o n m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n ie s , c o n s i s ­ t i n g o f two J a p a n e s e s u b s i d i a r i e s , an A m e ric a n s u b s i d i a r y , an d a B r i t i s h com pany w e re s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f p r o d u c t p r o ­ d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y a n d , a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e , s i z e . The b e s t p o s s i b l e m a tc h in g c r i t e r i a was a c h i e v e d b e tw e e n t h e m u l t i ­ n a t i o n a l s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s w h ic h h a d b e e n

e s t a b l i s h e d lo n g e n o u g h t o b e c o n s i d e r e d b e y o n d a "h o neym oon"

p e r i o d i n p r o d u c t i o n . The A m e ric a n com pany h a d o r i g i n a l l y b e e n u n d e r B r i t i s h n a t i o n a l o w n e r s h ip , b u t p a s s e d t o U .S .

c o n t r o l lo n g b e f o r e t h e J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s w e re e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e U .K . The B r i t i s h com pany, t h e l a r g e s t i n te r m s o f s i z e , i s t h e o n l y p u r e l y B r i t i s h s u r v i v o r i n t h e i n d u s t r y . J a p a n e s e T a b le 1: C a s e s S t u d i e d

S i z e

( o f e m p lo y e e s )

P r o d u c t T e c h n o lo g y .

U .S . 700 C o lo u r TV l a r g e b a t c h

m ass p r o d u c t i o n

J a p a n e s e 1 700 C o lo u r TV l a r g e b a t c h

m ass p r o d u c t i o n

J a p a n e s e 2 300 C o lo u r TV l a r g e b a t c h

m ass p r o d u c t i o n

U.K. 2000 C o lo u r TV l a r g e b a t c h

m ass p r o d u c t i o n

com pany 1 a n d J a p a n e s e com pany 2 a r e a n u n u s u a l l y w e l l - m a t c h e d p a i r s i n c e t h e y n o t o n l y a r e f a i r l y s i m i l a r i n te r m s o f t h e c r i t e r i a m e n tio n e d a b o v e , b u t a l s o i n r e g a r d t o su c h l a b o u r m a r k e t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e w o r k f o r c e , w o rk a g e , u n io n s t r u c t u r e an d t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a

i n w h ic h t h e y o p e r a t e . T h is h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l o v e r v a r i ­ a t i o n s make J a p a n e s e com pany 1 and J a p a n e s e com pany 2 t h e

i d e a l p a i r , w i t h w h ic h t o co m p are j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n and t o s i n g l i

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o u t p o l i c i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s w h ic h a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p o s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n s .

The f i e l d w o r k c o n s i s t e d o f s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d , o p e n - e n d e d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h 400 e m p lo y e e s i n t h e v a r i o u s c o m p a n ie s , r a n g i n g fro m to p m an ag em en t t o s h o p f l o o r w o r k e r s , a n d 'c o v e r i n g a l l

f u n c t i o n a l a r e a s , s u c h a s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s u p e r v i s i o n , f i r m , p a y , a n d p r o m o ti o n . T h u s , t h e s u r v e y on j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n i s o n l y p a r t o f a much l a r g e r s t u d y .

A q u e s t i o n n a i r e o f D e n is C ro s s (1 9 7 3 ) w as e m p lo y ed t o m e a s u r e j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n . The i n s t r u m e n t w as u s e d d u e t o i t s m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l n a t u r e a n d i t s t e s t e d r e l i a b i l i t y an d v a l i d i ­

t y . A n o th e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n was i t s s u i t a b i l i t y i n t h e U .K . c o n t e x t b e c a u s e i t w as d e v e lo p e d i n t h a t c o u n t r y . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e w as d i s t r i b u t e d by r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t s t o em­

p l o y e e s i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e c o m p a n ie s .- I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , t h e num ber o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d i s t r i b u t e d an d t h e r e s p e c t i v e r e s p o n s e r a t e s a r e show n. The f i g u r e s s h o w in g q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

* T a b le 2 : Jo b ' S a t i s f a c t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s D i s t r i b u t e d a n d

C o m p le te d i n F o u r E l e c t r o n i c s 'C o m p a n i e s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

D i s t r i b u t e d

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s R e c e iv e d

R e s p o n s e R a te

u. s.

280 224 80%

J a p a n e s e 1 400 248 62%

J a p a n e s e 2 210 122 58%

U.K. 2000 1510 75%

c o m p le te d a r e e x c l u s i v e o f 2.3% o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w h ic h w e re r e t u r n e d i n c o m p l e t e o r i n c o r r e c t l y c o m p le te d . I n a d d i ­

t i o n , t h e i n t e r v i e w s an d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e re s u p p le m e n te d by o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d s .

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6

I n c e n t e r i n g on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n s u r v e y , t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n w i l l f o c u s on t h e s e m i - s k i l l e d

f e m a le o p e r a t o r s s i n c e t h e y c o m p r is e t h e l a r g e s t se g m e n t o f s h o p f l o o r w o r k e r s a n d t h e l a r g e s t e m p lo y e e p r o p o r t i o n i n g e n e r a l . T h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o s t a t e m e n t s p r e s e n t e d on v a r i o u s d im e n s io n s o f j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n , s u c h a s s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e f i r m , p a y , p r o m o ti o n , t h e j o b i t s e l f , a n d f i n a l l y e m p lo y e e o p i n i o n s a b o u t c o - w o r k e r s w i l l b e e l a b o r a t e d u p o n i n s u b s e q u e n t s e c ­ t i o n s . As i n a l l s e c t i o n s to f o l l o w , a t a b l e sh o w in g t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y h i g h e s t an d l o w e s t r e s p o n s e p r o p o r t i o n s t o t h e d i f f e r e n t s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e E m p lo y ee O p-inion S u rv e y ( C r o s s , 1 9 7 3 ) w i l l p i n p o i n t t h e c o m p a n ie s w h ic h d i f f e r m o s t. I n a d d i ­ t i o n , t h e j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e x f o r e v e r y i te m i n t h e

q u e s t i o n n a i r e a n d t h e t o t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e f o r e a c h d im e n ­ s i o n w i l l b e show n. F u r t h e r m o r e , r e s p o n s e s fro m t h e d e t a i l e d t a b u l a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s w i l l b e d e l e t e d when t h e C h i S q u a r e T e s t i n d i c a t e s d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e c o m p a n ie s a t a s i g n i f i ­ c a n c e l e v e l l e s s t h a n 5%. A s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e x ( C r o s s , 1 9 7 3 ) w i l l b e show n i n t h e t a b l e w h ic h w i l l b e s c o r e d a s f o l l o w s :

W e ig h t

"Y e s" t o a p o s i t i v e i te m 3

"No" t o a n e g a t i v e i te m 3

" N o t S u r e " t o a n y i te m 1

"Y e s" t o a n e g a t i v e i te m 0

"No" t o a p o s i t i v e i te m 0 The s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e x r e p r e s e n t s t h e m ean s c o r e .

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FINDINGS

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h S u p e r v i s i o n

I n t h e a r e a o f e m p lo y e e s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s u p e r v i s i o n , T a b le 3 show s a c l e a r p a t t e r n i n w h ic h t h e A m e ric a n com pany e m e rg e s a s t h e o n e m o s t f a v o r a b l y p e r c e i v e d by i t s s e m i­

s k i l l e d w o r k f o r c e , w h i l e J a p a n e s e com pany 2 show s a r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s u g g e s t i n g t h e l e a s t f a v o r a b l e p e r c e p t i o n o f s u p e r v i ­ s i o n by t h e r e s p o n d e n t s . The r e s u l t s o f a l l b u t o n e s t a t e m e n t show s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e c o m p a n ie s a t a 57.

l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o r b e t t e r . T h is i s a l s o b o r n e o u t i n T a b le 4 by t h e s c o r i n g o f r e s p o n s e s i n t h e m a n n e r s u g g e s t e d by D e n is C r o s s ( 1 9 7 3 ) .

T a b le 4 : C u m u la tiv e S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x on t h e D im e n s io n S u p e r v i s i o n

S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x

Y our im m e d ia te s u p e r v i s o r : U .S . J a p . 1 J a p . 2 U .K .

L e t s y o u know w h e re y o u s t a n d 2 .1 1 .8 1 .6 1 .9

D oes a goo d j o b 2 .3 2 .1 1 .9 2 .0

S ta n d s up f o r you 2 .0 1 .5 1 .7 1 .6

Can d i s c u s s p r o b le m s w i t h him 2 .1 1 .7 1 . 4 1 .9

I S c o r e on p o s i t i v e ite m s 8 .5 7 .1 6 .6 7 .4

I n t e r f e r e s to o much 2 .8 2 .2 2 .6 2 .2

I s a lw a y s to o b u s y t o s e e y o u 2 .5 2 .1 1 .3 1 .9

I s q u i c k - t e m p e r e d 2 .3 2 .0 1 .7 1 .8

I s h a r d t o p l e a s e 2 .3 1 .8 2 .0 1 .8

I S c o r e o n n e g a t i v e ite m s 9 .9 8 .1 7 .6 7 .7

T o t a l S a t i s f a c t i o n S c o r e on

S u p e r v i s i o n 1 8 .4 1 5 .8 1 4 .2 1 5 .1

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T a b l e 3: S u m m a r y o f P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y H i g h e s t a n d L o w e s t R e s p o n s e s o n S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h S u p e r v i s i o n

Y o u r i m m e d i a t e S u p e r v i s o r :

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " N o " (7O)

L e v e l of S i g n i f i c a n c e L e t s y o u k n o w w h e r e y o u s t a n d U.S. (67.1) U.S. (26.1) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

D o e s a g o o d job U.S. (71.3) U.S. (12.2) 57»

S t a n d s u p for y o u U.S, (60.9) U.S. (22.6) <57o

C a n d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s w i t h h i m U.S. (66.0) U.S. (20.0) <57o

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "No " (7.)

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (7>)

I n t e r f e r e s too m u c h U.S. (91.3) U.S. ■ ( 5.2) <17>

Is a l w a y s too b u s y to see y o u U.S. (80.9) U.S. (10.4) <0.17o

Is q u i c k t e m p e r e d U.S. (72.2) U.S. (15.7) <57-

Is h a r d to p l e a s e U.S. (73.9) U . S . (13.9) <17o

« L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "N o " (7O)

L e t s y o u k n o w w h e r e y o u s t a n d J a p . 2 (52.7) J a p . 2 (41.8) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

D o e s a g o o d j o b J a p . 2 (56.4) U.K. (23.1) 5%

S t a n d s u p for y o u J a p . 1 (39.7) U.K. (34.7) <57O

C a n d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s w i t h h i m Jap. 2 (41.8) J a p . 2 (40.0) <57, L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n

R e s p o n d i n g "N o " (%)

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (7.)

I n t e r f e r e s too m u c h J a p . 2 (69.5) J a p . 2 (23.2) <17o

Is a l w a y s too b u s y to see y o u J a p . 2 (40.0) J a p . 2 (52.7) <0.17o

Is quick«-tempered J a p . 2 (49.1) J a p . 2 (32.7) <57O

Is h a r d to p l e a s e U.K. (54.5) Jap. 1 (31.8) <17.

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The t o t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e i n t h e d im e n s io n o f s u p e r v i s i o n s u p p o r t s t h e p a t t e r n v i s i b l e i n T ab le. 3 i n w h ic h t h e A m e ric a n com pany an d J a p a n e s e com pany 2 em erg e a s t h e c o m p a n ie s r e ­ f l e c t i n g t h e h i g h e s t a n d l o w e s t s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s u p e r v i s i o n among e m p lo y e e s . T a b l e 4 a l s o i n d i c a t e s a n a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l t o t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e i n t h e d im e n s io n o f s u p e r v i s i o n i n J a p a n e s e company 1 a n d t h e B r i t i s h com pany.

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e F irm

T a b le 5 , d e a l i n g w i t h - t h e d im e n s io n o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r m , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e sa m p le e x i s t b e tw e e n J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s 1 a n d 2 . J a p a n e s e com pany 1 i s p e r c e i v e d m o re f a v o r a b l y t h a n J a p a n e s e com pany 2 b y a s i g n i ­ f i c a n t l y h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f s e m i - s k i l l e d f e m a le o p e r a t o r s as d i f f e r e n c e s a t a 5% l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o r b e t t e r w e re i n d i - c a t e d b e tw e e n t h e c o m p a n ie s on a l l b u t o n e i te m I n T a b le 6, T a b le 6 : C u m u la tiv e S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x i n

F irm

t h e 'D im e n sio n - The

The f i r m :

S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x U . S . J a p . 1 J a p . . 2 U.K.

L ooks a f t e r i t s e m p lo y e e s 2 .2 2 .6 1 .8 2 .0

Has a good r e p u t a t i o n 1 .9 2 .7 2 .0 1 .8

F e e l y o u b e lo n g 1 .5 1 .6 1 .4 1 .4

The b e s t f i r m I ' v e w o rk e d f o r • 1 .5 2 .0 1 .4 1 .5

I S c o r e on p o s i t i v e ite m s 7 .1 8 .9 6 .6 6 .8

A p o o r f i r m t o w o rk f o r 2 .6 2 .7 2 .2 2 .4

They t r e a t y o u l i k e a num ber 1 .3 1 .6 1 .3 0 .9

Too much c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n 1 .7 1 .5 1 .3 1 .5

N eeds some f r e s h p e o p l e a t t h e to p 1 .0 0 .9 0 .5 0 .8

£ S c o re on n e g a t i v e ite m s 6 .6 6 .7 5 .3 5 .6

T o t a l S a t i s f a c t i o n S c o r e - The F irm 1 3 .7 1 5 .6 1 1 .9 1 2 .3

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T a b l e 5: S u m m a r y of P r o p o r t i o n the F i r m

a t e l y H i g h e s t a n d L o w e s t R e s p o n s e s o n S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h

T h e firm:

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

L e v e l of S i g n i f i c a n c e L o o k s a f t e r its e m p l o y e e s J a p . 1 (82.1) J a p . 1 ( 7.9) < 0 . 1 %

Has a g o o d r e p u t a t i o n J a p . 1 (87.4) Jap. 1 ( 7.3) < 0 . 1 %

F e e l y o u b e l o n g J a p . 1 (45.0) J a p . 1 (26.5) < 5 %

T h e b e s t f i r m I h a v e w o r k e d for Jap, 1 (57.6) J a p . 1 (19.9) < 0 . 1 % H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n

R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

A p o o r f i r m to w o r k for J a p . 1 (89.4) Jap. 1 ( 6.6) < 1 %

T h e y t r e a t y o u l i k e a n u m b e r Jap. 1 (47.7) J a p . 1 (40.4) < 0 . 1 %

Too m u c h c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n U.S. (51.3) U . S . (32.2) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

N e e d s som e f r e s h p e o p l e at top Jap. 1 (24.5) U.S. (48.7) < 0 . 1 %

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " N o " (%)

L o o k s a f t e r its e m p l o y e e s J a p . 2 (54.5) J a p . 2 (29.1) < 0 . 1 %

H a s a g o o d r e p u t a t i o n U.K. (52.4) U.K. (24.5) < 0 . 1 %

F e e l y o u b e l o n g J a p . 2 (40.0) J a p . 2 (43.6) 5%

T h e b e s t f i r m I h a v e w o r k e d for Jap. 2 (41.8) J a p . 2 (41.8) 0 . 1 % L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n

R e s p o n d i n g "N o " (%)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

A p o o r f i r m to w o r k for J a p . 2 (70.9) J a p . 2 (21.8) < 1 %

T h e y t r e a t y o u l i k e a n u m b e r U.K. (24.7) U.K. (64.3) < 0 . 1 %

T o o m u c h c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n J a p . 2 (40.0) J a p . 2 (49.1) I n s i g n i f i c a n t N e e d s some f r e s h p e o p l e at top Jap. 2 (12.7) J a p . 2 (72.7) < 0 . 1 %

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t h e c u m u l a t i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e x f o r a l l f i r m s s u r v e y e d i s show n. T h u s , t h e jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e s i n T a b le 6 c o n f ir m t h e p a t t e r n i n d i c a t e d i n T a b le 5 t h a t J a p a n e s e com pany 1 r a t e d h i g h e s t a n d J a p a n e s e com pany 2 r a t e d l o w e s t . H ig h e r l e v e l s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r m e x i s t i n t h e A m e ric a n com pany t h a n i n J a p a n e s e com pany 2 and t h e B r i t i s h co m p an y .- The m o s t p r o ­ n o u n c e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s a t i s f a c t i o n l e v e l s b e tw e e n J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s 1 a n d 2 a r e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e s on s u c h i te m s a s l o o k i n g a f t e r i t s em­

p l o y e e s a n d h a v in g a b e t t e r r e p u t a t i o n T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , w h ic h s h a l l b e e x p l a i n e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n a s u b s e q u e n t

s e c t i o n , a r e d u e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n m an ag em en t p h i l o s o p h y a n d r e s u l t i n g p e r s o n n e l p o l i c i e s .

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h Pay

The p a t t e r n v i s i b l e i n T a b le 7 c l e a r l y show s p r o n o u n c e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y b e tw e e n t h e A m e ric a n com­

p a n y a n d J a p a n e s e com pany 1 . W h e re a s l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s o f o p e r a t o r s i n t h e A m e ric a n com pany show s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y , r a t h e r s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n s i n d i c a t e s a t i s f a c t i o n i n J a p a n e s e com pany 1 . T h is i s c o n f ir m e d b y t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l e s s - t h a n 0.1% b e tw e e n t h e c o m p a n ie s .

The g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y

e s p e c i a l l y b e tw e e n t h e A m e ric a n com pany a n d J a p a n e s e com pany 1, a r e a l s o c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n T a b le 8 . I n f a c t , t h e lo w l e v e l o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y i n J a p a n e s e com pany 1 co m p a red t o a l l o t h e r c o m p a n ie s i s s t r i k i n g . The A m e ric a n com pany an d t h e B r i t i s h

company c l e a r l y em erg e a s l e a d e r s i n te r m s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y w h i l e J a p a n e s e com pany 2 r a n k s t h i r d . The d i f f e r e n c e s

b e tw e e n t h e t h i r d - r a n k i n g J a p a n e s e com pany 2 a n d t h e l o w e s t - r a n k i n g J a p a n e s e com pany 1 a r e e v e n m o re p r o n o u n c e d . J a p a n e s e com pany 1 i s c l e a r l y an e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e low l e v e l o f e m p lo y e e s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p a y i n c o m p a r is o n t o a l l o t h e r c o m p a n ie s . The i n d i c a t i o n o f a p e r c e i v e d i n e q u i t y on t h e

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T a b l e - 7: S u m m a r y of P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y H i g h e s t a n d L o w e s t R e s p o n s e s o n S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h P a y

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n L e v e l of

Pay: R e s p o n d i n g ‘'Yes'* (%) R e s p o n d i n g " N o " (%) S i g n i f i c a n c e

A d e q u a t e for m y n e e d s U . S . (55.7) U.S. (39.1) < 0 . 1 %

Q u i t e h i g h l y p a i d U.K. (36.7) U.K. (49.1) < 0 . 1 %

F a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y U.S. (77.4) U.S. (17.4) < 0 . 1 %

W e l l p a i d U.S. (42.6) U.S. (42.6) < 0 . 1 %

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g 1’N o " (%) R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

U n d e r p a i d for w h a t I do U.S. (70.4) U.S. (21.7) < 0 . 1 %

F a r too low U.S. (73.0) U.S. (15.7) < 0 . 1 %

Po o r U.S. (79.0) U.S. (16.5) < 0 . 1 %

L e s s t h a n I d e s e r v e U . S . (56.5) U.S. (27.0) < 0 . 1 %

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%) R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

A d e q u a t e for m y n e e d s Jap. 1 (17.4) J a p . 1 (76.8) < 0 . 1 %

Q u i t e h i g h l y p a i d Jap. 1 ( 9.3) J a p . 1 (82.1) < 0 . 1 %

F a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y J a p . 1 (48.3) J a p . 1 (47.0) < 0 . 1 %

W e l l p a i d Jap. 1 ( 6.0) J a p . 1 (83.4) < 0 . 1 %

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "No" (%) R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

U n d e r p a i d for w h a t I do J a p . 1 (17.2) J a p . 1 (42.8) < 0 . 1 %

F a r too l o w J a p . 1 (38.4) J a p . 1 (53.7) < 0 . 1 %

P o o r J a p . 1 (43.7) J a p . 1 (51.7) < 0 . 1 %

Le s s t h a n I d e s e r v e J a p . 1 (20.5) Jap. 1 (71.5) < 0 . 1 %

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T a b le 8 : C u m u la tiv e S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x i n t h e D im e n s io n - Pay S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x

P a y : U .S . J a p . 1 J a p . 2 U.K .

U n d e r p a id f o r w h a t I do 1 .7 0 .6 1 .7 1 .6

Q u ite h i g h l y p a i d 1 .1 0 . 4 0 .9 1 .2

F a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y 2 . 4 1 .5 2 .2 2 .2

W e ll p a i d 1 .4 0 .3 1 .0 1 .3

I S c o r e on p o s i t i v e ite m s 6 .6 2 .8 5 .8 6 .3

U n d e r p a id f o r w h a t I do 2 .2 0 .6 1 .5 1 .9

F a r to o low 2 .3 1 .2 1 .8 2 .1

P o o r 2 . 4 1 . 4 2 .0 2 .1

L e s s t h a n I d e s e r v e 1 .9 0 .7 1 .5 1 .7

I S c o r e on n e g a t i v e ite m s 8 .8 3 .9 6 .8 7 .8

t a i S a t i s f a c t i o n S c o r e - P ay 1 5 .4 6 .7 1 2 .6 1 4 .1

p a r t o f i t s o p e r a t o r s i s e s p e c i a l l y s t r i k i n g a s i s e v i d e n t i n t h e s c o r e s on t h e i te m s " U n d e r p a id f o r w h a t I d o " a n d " L e s s t h a n I d e s e r v e . " The r e a s o n s f o r t h e p e r c e i v e d i n e q u i t y i n J a p a n e s e company 1 w i l l b e e x p l a i n e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l u n d e r t h e h e a d in g " P e r s o n n e l P o l i c y a n d Jo b S a t i s f a c t i o n . "

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h P r o m o tio n

I n t h e d im e n s io n o f p r o m o ti o n , i n d i c a t i o n s i n T a b le 9 a r e t h a t J a p a n e s e com pany 2 i s t h e o n e v ie w e d m o s t f a v o r a b l y a n d J a p a n e s e com pany 1 t h e l e a s t f a v o r e d b y t h e o p e r a t o r s i n t h e s e c o m p a n ie s . I n T a b le 1 0 , t h e c u m u l a t i v e jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e x i n t h i s a r e a c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h i s c o n c l u s i o n a s i t a l s o show s t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p r o m o tio n i n J a p a n e s e com pany 2 , c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e l o w e s t l e v e l o f

s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p r o m o tio n i n J a p a n e s e company 1 . O p e r a t o r s

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T a b l e 9: S u m m a r y o f P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y H i g h e s t a n d L o w e s t R e s p o n s e s o n S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h P r o m o t i o n

P r o m o t i o n

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

L o w e s t . P r oportion R e s p o n d i n g "N o " (%)

L e v e l of S i g n i f i c a n c e

T h e s y s t e m o f p r o m o t i o n is f a i r .Tap 2 (38.2) U.S. (41.7) < 0 . 1 %

E a s y to g e t o n U.K. (25.6) U.K. (56.3) < 0 . 1 %

G o o d o p p o r t u n i t i e s J a p . 2 (25.5) U.K. (56.8) < 0 . 1 %

M y e x p e r i e n c e i n c r e a s e s m y prospects. Jap. 2 (43.6) J a p . 2 (43.6) < 0 . 1 % H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n

R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

P r o s p e c t s v e r y l i m i t e d J a p . 2 (25.5) J a p . 2 (67.3) < 0 . 1 %

T o o m u c h f a v o r i t i s m J a p . 2 (29.1) U . S . / U . K .(59.1) < 0 . 1 %

D e a d e n d job J a p . 2 (34.5) U.S. (55.7) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

G o o d j o b s u s u a l l y t a k e n h e a r a b o u t t h e m

b e f o r e y o u

J a p . 2 (30.9) Jap. 2 (6(61.8) < 0 . 1 %

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

T h e s y s t e m of p r o m o t i o n is f a i r U.K. (18.1) J a p . 1 (62.9) < 0 . 1 %

E a s y to g e t o n U.S. (11.3) J a p : 1 (79.5) < 0 . 1 %

G o o d o p p o r t u n i t i e s U.S. ( 8.7) J a p . 1 (72.2) < 0 . 1 %

M y e x p e r i e n c e i n c r e a s e s m y p r o s p e c t s U.K. ( 7.2) U . S . (63.5) < 0 . 1 % L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n

R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

P r o s p e c t s v e r y l i m i t e d U.S. ( 9.6) U . S . (80.9) < 0 . 1 %

T o o m u c h f a v o r i t i s m J a p . 1 (15.9) Jap. 1 (78.1) < 0 . 1 %

D e a d e n d job U.K. (26.3) J a p . 1 (62.3) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

G o o d jo b s u s u a l l y t a k e n b e f o r e y o u

Jap. 1 (82.1) < 0 . 1 %

h e a r a b o u t t h e m J a p . 1 (11.9)

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T a b le 10: C u m u la tiv e S a t i s f a c t i o n P r o m o tio n

I n d e x i n t h e D im e n s io n

S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x

P r o m o t io n : U.S . J a p . 1 J a p . 2 U .K .

The s y s te m o f p r o m o tio n i s f a i r 1 .1 0 .8 1 .3 0 .9

E a s y t o g e t on 0 .6 0 .5 0 .8 1 .0

Good o p p o r t u n i t i e s 0 .5 0 .5 0 .9 0 .8

My e x p e r i e n c e i n c r e a s e s my

p r o s p e c t s 0 .7 0 .9 1 . 4 0 .7

2 S c o r e on p o s i t i v e ite m s 2 .9 2 .7 4 . 4 3 . 4

P r o s p e s t s v e r y l i m i t e d 0 . 4 0 .5 0 .8 0 .5

Too much f a v o r i t i s m 0 .9 0 .5 0 .9 - 0 .9

D ead en d j o b 1 .0 0 .9 1 .1 1 .0

Good j o b s a r e u s u a l l y t a k e n b e ­

f o r e y o u h e a r a b o u t th em 1 .0 0 . 4 1 .0 0 .6

2 S c o r e on n e g a t i v e ite m s 3 .3 2 .3 3 .8 3 .0

T o t a l S a t i s f a c t i o n S c o r e -

P r o m o tio n 6 . 2 5 .0 8 .2 6 . 4

p e r c e i v e t h e p r o m o t i o n a l s y s te m a s b e i n g f a i r e r , e x p e r i e n c e - o r i e n t e d , a n d l e s s p r o n e t o f a v o r i t i s m i n J a p a n e s e com pany 2 t h a n i n J a p a n e s e com pany 1 . The A m e ric a n a n d B r i t i s h c o m p a n ie s show s i m i l a r s c o r e s i n d i c a t i n g a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l s a t i s f a c t i o n l e v e l s w i t h p r o m o tio n i n t h e s e c o m p a n ie s .

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e J o b i t s e l f

The B r i t i s h com pany a n d J a p a n e s e com pany 2 show n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l l e v e l s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e j o b i t s e l f , w h e r e a s t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n in d e x show s lo w e r l e v e l s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r J a p a n e s e com pany 1 a n d t h e A m e ric a n com pany. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e jo b i t s e l f w i l l n o t b e t r e a t e d i n

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T a b l e 11: S u m m a r y of P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y H i g h e s t a n d L o w e s t R e s p o n s e s o n S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the Job I t s e l f

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n L e v e l of T h e Job Itself: R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s ” (%) R e s p o n d i n g " N o " (%) S i g n i f i c a n c e

W o r t h w h i l e U.K. (38.6) U.K. (45.8) < 5 %

T i m e p a s s e s q u i c k l y U.K. (46.2) U.K. (46.9) < 0 . 1 %

S a t i s f y i n g J a p . 2 (41.8) » J a p . 2 (50.9) < 0 . 1 %

B e t t e r t h a n o t h e r j o b s I ' v e h a d J a p . 2 (50.9) J a p . 2 (34.5) < 0 . 1 % H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n

R e s p o n d i n g "No" (%) R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s ” (%)

It's the sam e d a y a f t e r d a y U.K. (15.8) U.K. (82.7) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

T h e w r o n g s o r t o f j o b f o r m e J a p . 2 (58.2) J a p . 2 (25.5) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

R o u t i n e U.K. (10.8) U.K. (80.7) < 0 . 1 %

E n d l e s s U.K. (28.4) U.K. (58.0 < 1 %

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%) R e s p o n d i n g " N o " (%)

W o r t h w h i l e J a p . 1 (27.8) U.K. (45.8) < 5 %

T i m e p a s s e s q u i c k l y J a p . 1 (24.5) U.S. (60.9) < 0 . 1 %

S a t i s f y i n g U.S. (22.6) U.S. (60.9) < 0 . 1 %

B e t t e r t h a n o t h e r j o b s I ' v e h a d J a p . 2 (27.8) U.S. (53.9) < 0 . 1 % L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n H i g h e s t P r o portion'

R e s p o n d i n g "No" (%) R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

It's the s a m e d a y a f t e r d a y J a p . 2 ( 3.6) J a p . 2 (96.4) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

T h e w r o n g sor t of j o b for m e J a p . 1 (46.4) U.K. (35.7) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

R o u t i n e J a p . 2 ( 3.6) U.S. (93.0) < 0 . 1 %

E n d l e s s Jap. 2 (21.8) J a p . 2 (78.2) < 1 %

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t h i s p a p e r s i n c e t h e y do n o t a p p e a r to b e a r e s u l t o f d i f ­ f e r e n c e s i n p e r s o n n e l p o l i c y ( R e i t s p e r g e r , 1 9 8 1 b ) . F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a c k n o w le d g e t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t .

T a b le 1 2 : C u m u la tiv e S a t i s f a c t i o n The Jo b I t s e l f

I n d e x i n t h e D im e n s io n -

The J o b I t s e l f : U.S

S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x

J a p . 1 J a p . 2 U.K .

W o rth w h ile 1 .0 1 .0 1 .2 1 .3

Tim e p a s s e s b y q u i c k l y 1 .0 0 .9 1 . 4 1 .5

S a t i s f y i n g 0 .8 1 .0 1 .3 1 .3

B e t t e r t h a n o t h e r j o b s I ' v e h a d 1 .0 1 .5 1 .7 1 .3

I S c o r e on p o s i t i v e ite m s 3 .8 4 . 4 5 .6 5 . 4

I t ’ s t h e sam e d a y a f t e r d a y 0 .5 0 . 4 0 . 1 0 .5

The w ro n g s o r t o f j o b f o r me 1 .6 1 .6 1 .9 1 .6

R o u t in e 0 .2 0 .3 0 . 2 0 . 4

E n d le s s 0 .9 0 .9 0 .7 1 .0

2 S c o r e on n e g a t i v e i te m s 3 .2 3 .2 2 .9 3.-5

T o t a l S a t i s f a c t i o n S c o r e - The Jo b

I t s e l f 7 .0 7 .6 8 .5 8 .9

S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h C o -W o rk ers

T a b le 13 show s t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y h i g h e s t a n d l o w e s t r e s p o n s e s i n t h e d im e n s io n o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h c o - w o r k e r s . I t i n d i c a t e s . t h a t t h e m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e ­ tw e e n J a p a n e s e com pany 2 a n d t h e B r i t i s h com pany. The m o st f a v o r a b l e o p e r a t o r r e s p o n s e s o c c u r r e d i n t h e f o r m e r a n d t h e l e a s t f a v o r a b l e i n t h e l a t t e r . A l l b u t two ite m s i n t h i s d im e n s io n r e c e i v e d r e s p o n s e s a t a l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l e s s t h a n 1%. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , t h e c u m u l a t i v e

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T a b l e 13: S u m m a r y o f P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y H i g h e s t a n d L o w e s t R e s p o n s e s on S a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h C o - W o r k e r s

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n L e v e l of T h e P e o p l e Y o u W o r k With: R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%) R e s p o n d i n g " N o " (%) S i g n i f i c a n c e

, H a r d w o r k i n g Jap. 2 (87.3) Jap. 1 ( 5.9) < 1 %

K n o w t h e i r j o b s . J a p . 1 (86.1) J a p . 1 ( 5.3) < 0 . 1 %

W o r k w e l l as a g r o u p J a p . 2 (92.7) J a p . 2 ( 7.3) < 0 . 1 %

Do t h e i r s h a r e o f t h e w o r k Jap. 2 (87.3) J a p . 2 ( 7.3) < 0 . 1 %

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n E a s y to m a k e e n e m i e s

R e s p o n d i n g U, S .

" N o " (%) (67.8)

R e s p o n d i n g U.S.

" Y e s " (%)

(27.8) I n s i g n i f i c a n t S o m e t h i n k t h e y r u n the p l a c e u . s . (22.6) U.K. (67.6) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

S t u p i d J a p . 2 (81.8) J a p . 2 ( 9 . 1 ) 0 . 0 %

U n p l e a s a n t U . S . (80.9) Jap. 1 (10.6) 0 . 3 % OO

1

H a r d w o r k i n g

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

U.K. (69.0)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "N o " (%)

U.K. (18.5) < 1 %

K n o w t h e i r jobs U.K. (62.3) U.K. (23.9) < 0 . 1 %

W o r k w e l l as a g r o u p U.K. (71.5) U.K. (19.8) < 0 . 1 %

Do t h e i r s h a r e of the w o r k U.K. (65.3) U.K. (22.0) < 0 . 1 %

E a s y to m a k e e n e m i e s

L o w e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g "No " (%)

Jap. 2 (58.2)

H i g h e s t P r o p o r t i o n R e s p o n d i n g " Y e s " (%)

Jap. 2 (34.5) I n s i g n i f i c a n t S o m e t h i n k t h e y r u n the p l a c e J a p . 2 (18.2) Jap. 2 (76.4) I n s i g n i f i c a n t

S t u p i d U.K. (63.3) U.K. (23.1) 0 . 0 %

U n p l e a s a n t U.K. (68.1) U.K. (22.6) 0 . 3 %

(25)

s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e x c o n f i r m s t h i s r e s u l t .

T a b le 1 4 : C u m u la tiv e S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x on t h e D im e n s io n - C o -W o rk ers

- S a t i s f a c t i o n I n d e x

The p e o p l e y o u w o rk w i t h : U.S J a p . 1 J a p . 2 U .K .

H a rd w o rk in g 2 .4 2 .5 2 .7 2 .2

Know t h e i r j o b s 2 .5 2 .7 2 .5 2 .0

Work w e l l a s a g ro u p 2 .6 2 .5 2 .8 2 .2

Do t h e i r s h a r e o f t h e w o rk 2 .5 2 .5 2 .7 2 .1

I S c o r e on p o s i t i v e ite m s 1 0 .0 1 0 .2 1 0 .7 8 .5

E a s y t o m ake e n e m ie s 2 .1 1 .9 1 .8 1 .5

Some o f th em t h i n k t h e y r u n t h e

p l a c e 0 .8 0 .7 0 .6 0 .8

S t u p i d 2 .5 2 .5 2 .6 2 .0

U n p l e a s a n t 2 .5 2 .5 2 . 4 2 .1

E S c o r e on n e g a t i v e i te m s 7 .9 7 .6 7 .4 6 .8

T o t a l S a t i s f a c t i o n S c o r e - Co-

Co -W o rk e rs 1 7 .9 1 7 .8 1 8 .1 1 5 .3

T a b le 14 show s t h e h i g h e s t s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e i n t h e d im e n s io n o f c o - w o r k e r s i n J a p a n e s e com pany 2 w h e r e a s s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e tw e e n t h e A m e ric a n a n d J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s i n te r m s o f t h e t o t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e . The s a t i s f a c t i o n l e v e l s w i t h t h e c o - w o r k e r s i n t h e s e l a s t two c o m p a n ie s , t h e r e ­ f o r e , i s r o u g h l y i d e n t i c a l '. ' The B r i t i s h com pany s t a n d s o u t a s h a v in g t h e l o w e s t l e v e l o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h c o - w o r k e r s . An

e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e w i l l b e o f f e r e d l a t e r u n d e r t h e h e a d in g " P e r s o n n e l P o l i c y an d Jo b S a t i s f a c t i o n . "

(26)

20

PERSONNEL POLICY AND JOB SATISFACTION

I n r e v i e w i n g t h e s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r m , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t J a p a n e s e com pany 1 i s p e r c e i v e d m o s t f a v o r a b l y b y i t s s e m i - s k i l l e d f e m a le o p e r a ­ t o r s o f a l l t h e c o m p a n ie s i n t h e s a m p le . I n c o n t r a s t , J a p a n e s e com pany 2 i s s e e n i n t h e l e a s t f a v o r a b l e l i g h t i n r e g a r d s t o t h e c o m p a n y 's p o l i c i e s to w a r d i t s w o r k f o r c e ( T a b l e s 5 a n d 6 ) . The A m e ric a n com pany, a s h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d e a r l i e r , r e c e i v e d a l e s s f a v o r a b l e s c o r e t h a n J a p a n e s e com pany 1 b u t s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n t h e B r i t i s h com pany an d J a p a n e s e com pany 2 .

The f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s e x h i b i t e d b y o p e r a t o r s i n

J a p a n e s e com pany 1 c l a r i f y t h e d e l i b e r a t e l y d e s i g n e d p e r s o n n e l p o l i c i e s w h ic h m ake t h e o p e r a t o r f e e l i m p o r t a n t a n d lo o k e d a f t e r b y t h e com pany. V i s i t s w hen i l l , c o u n s e l i n g on f i n a n ­

c i a l m a t t e r s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n by t a x i i n c a s e o f h e a l t h p r o b le m s a r e common com pany p r a c t i c e s a n d a n e x p r e s s i o n o f to p m a n a g e ­ m en t p h i l o s o p h y . T h is m e e ts w i t h a p p r e c i a t i o n fro m a l l o r g a n i ­

s a t i o n a l l e v e l s . The f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t r e p r e s e n t s a w i d e l y h e l d v ie w among e m p lo y e e s o f a l l r a n k s i n J a p a n e s e com pany 1:

The personal touch in this company is so great that one would have to go a long way to beat it. I got sick.

They looked after my wife, they provided a taxi that she could visit me. They sent flowers; they sent a note if there was anything they could do.... The concern comes from above and penetrates down the line. Everybody is treated equally.

The b a s i c f o c u s on t h e i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t o r ' s w e l l - b e i n g a n d f a v o r a b l e e m o t i o n a l a n d p h y s i c a l h e a l t h i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t ' t o s e n i o r m an ag em en t p r o d u c t i v e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e c a l i b e r e x p e c te d i n J a p a n e s e com pany 1 c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d w i t h an e m o t i o n a l l y an d p h y s i c a l l y h e a l t h y w o r k f o r c e . I n t h e v ie w o f s e n i o r J a p a n e s e m an ag em en t a n d t h e l o c a l p e r s o n n e l m a n a g e r, t h e c o m p a n y 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e o p e r a t o r ' s w e l l - b e i n g i s

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