A Re-Evaluation of the Evidence

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T e x t e und Studien z u m Antiken Judentum

Herausgegeben von Martin Hengel und Peter Schäfer

60

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Qumran and the Essenes

A Re-Evaluation of the Evidence

by

Lena Cansdale

J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck) Tubingen

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Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Einheitsaufnahme Cansdale, Lena:

Qumran and the Essenes : a re-evaluation of the evidence / by Lena Cansdale. - Tübingen : Mohr, 1997

(Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum ; 60) ISBN 3-16-146719-1

N E : G T

This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to repro- ductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems.

The book was typeset by Martin Fischer in Tübingen using Times typeface, printed by Guide- Druck in Tübingen on non-aging paper from Papierfabrik Weissenstein in Pforzheim and bound by Heinr. Koch in Tübingen.

Printed in Germany.

ISSN 0721-8753

978-3-16-158787-0 Unveränderte eBook-Ausgabe 2019

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Preface

Early in 1991 when I started my researches into Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls I had little idea of the wealth of material available to a student of Pale- stine in the Second Temple era and the many problems, both political and reli- gious, which emerge from the relevant sources. My PhD thesis, submitted to the University of Sydney in August 1994, was based on those researches and this book is a revision and up-date of the thesis. My cut-off point for inclusion from the ever growing number of publications dealing with the various aspects of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls available in Australia is April 1996.

During my postgraduate study years I was assisted by two Australian Post- graduate Research Awards, granted by the University of Sydney, which ena- bled me to attend and read papers at a number of conferences overseas and made it possible for me to see for myself the ruins of Qumran and the original scrolls in the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem.

A scholarship awarded by the University of Sydney Department of Semitic Studies took me for a month's study at the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies. This gave me the invaluable opportunity of meeting a number of academics involved in the study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and to benefit from their depth of learning. I would like to acknowledge my great debt of gratitude to the large number of scholars whose work I have consulted, to whom I lis- tened to at a number of conferences or who have generously given their time in correspondence or in person.

My thanks also to my former supervisor, Dr Brian Croke, who established for me a set of firm guidelines for the writing my BA (Hons) thesis which has ruled my researches ever since, and who has continued to help me and take an interest in my work. Dr Marlene Norst has been an inspiration throughout the whole period with her constant encouragement and sound advice on the intrica- cies of the English language to someone whose mother tongue is not English.

Many thanks also to Elizabeth Owen for her help in locating references. I am particularly grateful to Malcolm Goldfinch, computer guru since the 1950s, who first introduced me to computers and gave me much advice and support.

My most sincere appreciation and greatest thanks go to the two persons without whom this work would not have been possible. First is Professor Alan D. Crown, whose vast knowledge, remarkable memory and insight into the problems of the period have constantly been the inspiration which has fuelled my researches. He has unstintingly given me many hours of his precious time and has guided me patiently in the furthering of my work. Any errors and omis- sions which remain are of course my own.

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V I Preface

The second person is my husband Tony, who has not only o f f e r e d me constant emotional support and encouragement, but also became "computer liter- ate" so that he could instruct me in the new technology. He has taken a great interest in my researches and has made most helpful suggestions for the im- provement of the text, maps and plans.

This book is dedicated to him.

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T h e N a m e s of the C o m m u n i t i e s 58 W h e r e did the C o m m u n i t i e s L i v e ? 59 R e l i g i o u s B e l i e f s and Practices 6 0 R u l e s F o r Joining T h e C o m m u n i t y 61 Way of L i f e and C u s t o m s : Private P r o p e r t y 63 Way of L i f e and C u s t o m s : the S w e a r i n g of O a t h s and Vows 6 4

Way of L i f e and C u s t o m s : O w n i n g of Slaves 6 4 Way of L i f e and C u s t o m s : Attitude to W a r and M a n u f a c t u r e of W e a p o n s . . . 65

Way of L i f e and C u s t o m s : Attitude to W o m e n and C e l i b a c y 65

7. Comparison of the Scroll Community with other Jewish Sects 67 T h e P h a r i s e e s and the Scroll C o m m u n i t y - Similarities and D i f f e r e n c e s . . . . 67

T h e S a d d u c e e s and the Scroll C o m m u n i t y - Similarities and D i f f e r e n c e s . . . 6 9 T h e Z e a l o t s and the Scroll C o m m u n i t y - Similarities and D i f f e r e n c e s 73 T h e S a m a r i t a n s and the Scroll C o m m u n i t y - Similarities and D i f f e r e n c e s . . . 75 Rechabites, Nazirites, H a s i d i m and the Scroll C o m m u n i t y - Similarities

and D i f f e r e n c e s 76 Early Christianity and the Scroll C o m m u n i t y - Similarities and D i f f e r e n c e s . 78

N a m e l e s s Sects 79

Part Two

Qumran and its Surroundings

8. Scroll Finds - Past and Present 81 H i d i n g and F i n d i n g of Scrolls and o t h e r T r e a s u r e s : Literary R e p o r t s 82

T h e Shapira Scrolls - G e n u i n e or F o r g e r i e s ? 85 Scroll D i s c o v e r i e s by A u t h o r i s e d A r c h a e o l o g i s t s and F r e e l a n c e S e a r c h e r s . . 87

D i s c o v e r i e s in the C a v e s near Wadi Q u m r a n 87

Wadi M u r a b b a ' a t D i s c o v e r i e s 88 Khirbet M i r d D i s c o v e r i e s 89 N a h a l H e v e r and N a h a l M i s h m a r D i s c o v e r i e s 89

Wadi e d - D a l i y e h D i s c o v e r i e s 91

M a s a d a D i s c o v e r i e s 9 2 R e c e n t C a v e D i s c o v e r i e s 9 3 D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the Q u m r a n Scroll F i n d s and other D i s c o v e r i e s 9 4

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Contents I X

9. The Name and Identity of Qumran 98 P l a c e N a m e s in the D e a d Sea A r e a s h o w n on old M a p s 9 8

T h e N a m e of Q u m r a n in the Pre-exilic Period 101 T h e N a m e of Q u m r a n in the S e c o n d T e m p l e Era 106 T h e N a m e of Q u m r a n in M o d e r n T i m e s 109

10. Was Qumran Part of a Land and Sea Trade Route Network? 114

E v i d e n c e for D e a d Sea C o m m e r c i a l S h i p p i n g 116 19th and Early 20th C e n t u r y R e p o r t s on Travel to the D e a d Sea A r e a 120

11. Archaeology of Qumran: The Cisterns 125 T h e Cisterns - Water S t o r a g e or M i q v a o t ? 125

12. Archaeology of Qumran: Tower and "Scriptorium" 137 T h e Function of the T o w e r : Was Q u m r a n a F o r t r e s s ? 137

" S c r i p t o r i u m " and " W r i t i n g T a b l e s " - are other I d e n t i f i c a t i o n s P o s s i b l e ? . . 144

13. Archaeology of Qumran: Industrial Workshops;

Finds of Pottery, Glass, Stone, Bone and Coins 149

Industrial W o r k s h o p s 150 Pottery Finds 153 F i n d s of Stone Vessels and other S t o n e O b j e c t s 157

F i n d s of Glass F r a g m e n t s 158 F i n d s of A n i m a l B o n e s and other F o o d R e m a i n s 160

S i n g l e C o i n s and C o i n H o a r d D i s c o v e r i e s 161

14. Archaeology of the Surroundings: Cemeteries and Caves 165

T h e C e m e t e r i e s 165 T h e C a v e s 170

15. Settlements near Qumran: Ain Feshkha & other Villages 174

A i n F e s h k h a - an Industrial A n n e x e of Q u m r a n ? 174

O t h e r S e t t l e m e n t s in the N e i g h b o u r h o o d of Q u m r a n 178

16. The Priestly City of Jericho and its Connection with Qumran 181

17. Conclusions 191 T h e E s s e n e s and their R e l a t i o n s h i p to Q u m r a n 191

T h e E s s e n e s and their R e l a t i o n s h i p to the C o n c e p t s in the Scrolls 192

T h e Scrolls and their C r e a t o r s 194 T h e Scrolls and R e a s o n s for their C o n c e a l m e n t in the C a v e s 194

Q u m r a n and its F u n c t i o n s 196

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X Contents

Appendices

Appendix One 198 Appendix Two 199

Maps

Map One: The Position of the Eleven "Scroll Caves" in relation to Qumran . . . 200

Map Two: Scroll and Treasure Finds in the Dead Sea Area 201 Map Three: Trade Routes from Gulf of Elath to the North and West 202

Map Four: Roads and Ascents from Dead Sea to the West 203 Map Five: Qumran and Neighbouring Settlements near the Dead Sea 204

Plans

Plan One: Qumran in Israelite and la Periods according to de Vaux and du Buit . 205

Plan Two: Plan of Khirbet Qumran showing Cisterns 206 Plan Three: Khirbet Qumran, Schematic Plan of Loci in Periods lb and II 207

Bibliography

Ancient Sources 209 Dictionaries, Encyclopaedias, Bibliographies, Atlases and Maps 209

Secondary References 210

Indexes

Index of Persons 223 Index of Subjects 225 Index of Geographical Names 229

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Abbreviations'

Sources 1 Q H Hodayoth or T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s 1 Q M War Rule ( f r o m Cave 1)

1 Q p H a b C o m m e n t a r y on H a b a k k u k 1 QS C o m m u n i t y Rule

1 Q S a Messianic Rule I Q S b The Blessings 3 Q 1 5 C o p p e r Scroll

4 QFlor Florilegium or Midrash on the Last D a y s 4 Q M War Rule ( f r o m Cave 4)

4 Q M M T Miqsat M a ' a s e Hatorah ( f r o m Cave 4) II Q T Temple Scroll

C D D a m a s c u s Rule (Cairo) De Abs Porphyry, De Abstinentia Ant Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews

Apol Philo of Alexandria, Apologia pro ludaeis Bib Hist Diodorus, Bibliotheca Histórica

Collectanea Solinus, Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium De Nupt Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii Geog Strabo of Amaseia, Geographia

Hist Alex Curtius R u f u s , Historiae Alexandri Magni Hist Ecc Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History Historiae Tacitus, The Histories

Life Josephus, Life M Mishnah

Nat Hist Pliny the Elder, Natural History

Q o p Philo of Alexandria, Quod omnis probus liber sit Ref Hippolytus of R o m e , Refutation of all Heresies Tb Talmud Bavli

Ty Talmud Yerushalami

Vc Philo of Alexandria, De vita contemplativa War Josephus, The Jewish War

Modern Works And Periodicals A A S O R Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research A D A J Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan A J B A Australian Journal of Biblical A r c h a e o l o g y A L U O S Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society BA Biblical Archaeologist

1 Biblical, Mishnaic and related literature according to abbreviations used in JBL.

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X I I Abbreviations

BAR Biblical Archaeology Review

BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library (of Manchester) BL British Library

BR Bible Review

C B Q Catholic Biblical Quarterly CC The Christian Century (Chicago) C R : B S Currents in Research: Biblical Studies EI Eretz-Israel (Hebrew)

H S C P Harvard Studies in Classical Philology HTR Harvard Theological Review

H U C A Hebrew Union College Annual IEJ Israel Exploration Journal IMJ The Israel Museum Journal

J A O S Journal of the American Oriental Society JAS Journal of Archaeological Science JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

J E S O Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient JHG Journal of Historical Geography

JJS Journal of Jewish Studies J N E S Journal of Near Eastern Studies JQR Jewish Quarterly Review JR Journal of Religion JRS Journal of Roman Studies

JS Jewish Studies - Forum of the World Union of Jewish Studies J S O T Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JTS Journal of Theological Studies

LA Liber Annuus - Studium Biblicum Franciscanum

NovT Novum Testamentum

NTS New Testament Studies

PAAJR Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research PAPS Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society PEFQS Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly

PJB Palästinajahrbuch des Deutschen evangelischen Instituts für Alter- tumswissenschaft des heiligen Landes

PW Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Q D A P The Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine

QJE The Quarterly Journal of Economics REJ Revue des études juives

RQ Revue de Qumran

SA Scientific American SR Studies in Religion (Canada) T L S Times Literary Supplement T L Z Theologische Literaturzeitung TRu Theologische Rundschau T Z Theologische Zeitschrift

WA World Archaeology

Z D P V Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

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Introduction

Established hypotheses dealing with the Dead Sea Scrolls and the neighbouring settlement of Qumran have of late undergone a considerable amount of re-evaluation. This has resulted in a situation which appears to be in accord with Kuhn's hypothesis', that when a scientific theory no longer seems appli- cable, a new model or paradigm is created by "rebels". If the new paradigm or theory answers more questions or leaves fewer questions unanswered, it will, after a struggle with the holders of the original theory, become the accepted model. In Dead Sea Scroll research we appear to have reached this stage. More scroll fragments (mainly from Cave Four) have recently become available for study and publication and archaeologists have made new finds or have re-inter- preted older discoveries; these developments have led to the obsolescence of prevailing theories. Some supporters of the original theories have tried to mod- ify the traditional explanations, but they seem unable to fit the new evidence into the old theories which therefore must be rigorously re-examined.

The long held consensus, though from the earliest days not subscribed to by all scholars, is that the scrolls found in eleven caves close to the ruined settlement of Qumran belonged to a Jewish sect, the Essenes, who existed at the end of the Second Temple period. The Essenes, it is claimed, lived at Qumran in a type of "monastic" community and there wrote and copied the scrolls and hid them in adjoining caves in CE 68 when the Romans were about to capture the settlement. The "rebels" challenge this theory and they offer a number of alternative theories which will be examined later. This book will investigate the original and the alternative explanations for the provenance of the scrolls and the function of the Qumran settlement and will offer its findings in two separate parts.

In early research into the scrolls and the Qumran settlement literary evidence (by the ancient authors about the Essenes), textual evidence (the scrolls them- selves), and archaeological evidence were used to support the theory that Qum- ran was an Essene settlement where the scrolls were written. The theory was so attractive to its proponents that their choice of evidence became selective and many anomalies and contradictions between written and archaeological data, or even within these categories, were ignored or at best speciously explained away. On re-examination of the evidence it appears that what was said by the ancient authors about the Jewish sect of the Essenes is by no means the same as what the scrolls have to say about the group or groups of people who are the

1 T h o m a s S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Révolutions, 2nd edit. (Chicago 1974).

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2

Introduction

subject of the scrolls. The same may be said of the archaeological finds made at the ruined settlement of Qumran and in the neighbouring caves where the scrolls were discovered. What is attempted here is a re-examination of the evidence and the drawing of conclusions from archaeological, textual and literary sources without selectively choosing the separate parts to make them fit together.

Part One of this book will examine the theory which claims Essene author- ship of the scrolls and will consider an hypothesis that the writers of the "Rule Scrolls"2, who may have consisted of one or more groups, were not synony- mous with the Essenes. To uncover evidence for the separate identity of each community a number of ancient authors, primarily Philo, Josephus and Pliny, will be examined and their reliability considered. What they had to say about the Essenes and about other Jewish sects will be ascertained and any contradictions between the different authors' reports will be discussed. Then the "Rule Scrolls" will be analysed to bring out particular themes dealt with by their authors, including the community's reliance on agriculture and the specific laws governing women in the sect. The significance of these factors in the context of the theory that a predominantly celibate sect lived in the desert envi- ronment of Qumran will be determined. Finally, writings found in the caves, i.e., the scrolls, will be compared with the literary evidence about the Essenes to discover whether the former appear to describe the Essene sect as depicted in the ancient sources or whether they could refer to a quite different community or communities within the Second Temple period.

It should be borne in mind that both the Essenes and the community for whom the scrolls were written, assuming for the sake of the argument that they were different, came from the same background, that is to say the Jewish people of the Second Temple Period. Therefore any similarities between the two groups, and other groups from the same background, cannot be taken as proof that they were one and the same, as common characteristics of various groups must be expected and are therefore of little use when trying to identify the writers of the scrolls. On the other hand the examination of diverging beliefs is of prime importance in determining whether or not these two groups were iden- tical. Other Jewish groups of the period, as well as the Essenes, will be studied to see if the composers of the scrolls may be found among them. At this point a suggestion will be offered as to the possible identity of the people to whom the authors of the scrolls directed their writings and what may have been their background.

Part Two will examine the archaeological evidence from the contents of the caves and from the ruined settlements of Qumran and Ain Feshkha and will seek to find what connection, if any, there was between the settlements and the hidden scrolls. Further discoveries made in other caves near the shore of the Dead Sea, both in this century and in earlier times, will be considered to ascer-

2 1QS, lQSa, 11QT, 1/4QM, CD, first so named in 1962 by Geza Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English (Harmondsworth 1962).

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Introduction

3 tain if there are any basic differences between the Qumran scrolls and written material found in other caves.

The position of Qumran in relation to the geographic features and economic potential of the surrounding countryside will be examined. These include Qum- ran's situation on a well-used trade route, accessible both by water across the Dead Sea and overland along its western shore. A study will be made of the natural resources of the neighbourhood such as salt and bitumen, and agricul- tural products, among them balsam, dates and reeds. The manufacturing capa- bilities of Qumran and Ain Feshkha, for which more and more archaeological evidence is coming to light, will also be scrutinised.

The findings of Father Roland de Vaux, excavator of Qumran and the caves, and more recent archaeologists will be compared and their conclusions evalu- ated. The theory that Qumran was an "Essene monastic establishment" will be closely examined and the possibility that there was a close connection between Qumran and the priestly city of Jericho will be suggested. The nature of the Qumran and Ain Feshkha settlements in the Hasmonaean and Herodian peri- ods and during the earlier pre-exilic Judaean Monarchy will be studied in de- tail. Finally, an alternative explanation for the connection between the manu- scripts found in the caves and the settlement at Qumran will be offered.

Two terms used in this book must be defined. The people for whom the scrolls were written will be referred to as the "Scroll Community", with the proviso that we may possibly be dealing with more than one such community.

This designation is chosen rather than the name "Qumran sect", a name now, according to L.F. Schiffman, in use by "most scholars"

3

, because as will be suggested, there may not have been an immediate or close connection between the Scroll Community and the Qumran settlement. Another expression, the

"Yahad Community", will only be used when discussing those scrolls in which

this name appears, for example 1QS and lQpHab and in a slightly different form in the Damascus Rule (CD); it will not be used as a name for the commu- nity as a whole. The expression "sectarians" is also avoided as it gives the impression of a community apart from the Jewish commonwealth of the Sec- ond Temple period, of which the Scroll Community was a branch forming one of the many strands which made up the Jewish people of that time.

The second term which needs definition is "The Bible" with its adjective

"biblical". Although this word, from the Greek Bi|3>tO(; = book, is often used in everyday speech to refer to both the Old and the New Testaments, in this book

"Bible" or "biblical" will be used only for the Old Testament or more precisely the Hebrew Bible, that is the Tanach "["]!"). The New Testament will be referred to by its commonly used name.

There are many ways of transliterating Arabic and Hebrew place names, for instance "Tl "I? can be spelt En Gedi, Ein Gedi or Ain Gedi, but I have endeav-

3 Lawrence H. Schiffman, 'The Sadducean Origins of the Dead Sea Scroll Sect' in Her- shel Shanks Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls ( N e w York 1992) 3 5 - 4 9 , here 40.

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4

Introduction

oured to be consistent where place names occur in the text. In direct quotations and titles of articles or books however I have retained the original spelling of the author concerned.

Before the Essene question is posed, a short review of the history of the finding of the scrolls and the subsequent archaeological work at Qumran will be given and some of the literature arising from these discoveries will be brief- ly discussed.

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Part One

The Community Of The Scrolls

C h a p t e r O n e

Brief History of Scroll Finds and Literature Review Dead Sea Scroll Discoveries and the Excavation ofQumran

When a young Bedouin shepherd followed a lost goat into a cave in the cliffs near Qumran and discovered bundles of inscribed leather hidden in a j a r , a new era in Middle Eastern research began. This event was to bring great changes to the study of biblical and apocryphal texts, an improved understanding of the Jewish commonwealth before the destruction of the Second Temple and with it the clarification of the background of early Christianity. The boy's discovery also led to great advances being made in the study of palaeography and to our knowledge of the physical aspects of documents from Hasmonaean and Hero- dian times. Finally, the first scroll finds encouraged further investigation of the Dead Sea area resulting in a host of most important archaeological discoveries spanning thousands of years from Chalcolithic to early Islamic times.

At first the significance of the finds, made in late 1946 or early 1947, was not recognised as none of the persons who were asked to comment on the scrolls was sufficiently expert to realise the vital importance of what they were being shown. It was not until the end of 1947 that Professor Sukenik of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, saw a scroll fragment and identified it as dating back to the Second Temple period. He was able to purchase three of the scrolls (1QM;

1QH; IQIsb) from an Arab dealer who had bought them from the Bedouin1. A second collection of four scrolls, (1QS with lQSa, lQpHab, lQapGen and lQIsa) had been purchased by the Syrian Metropolitan, Mar Athanasius Sam- uel, who in early 1949 spirited them out of the country and endeavoured to sell them in America, eventually advertising them in the "For Sale" columns of the Wall Street Journal. In 1955 as a result of this advertisement the scrolls were bought by (General) Yigal Yadin, an eminent Israeli scholar, archaeologist and

1 A n u m b e r of slightly conflicting stories about some of the facts and the order of events exist. T h e version here is taken f r o m the account by A m e r i c a n journalist E d m u n d Wilson, The Scrolls from the Dead Sea (London 1955).

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6

The Community of the Scrolls

son of Professor Sukenik, for the recently created State of Israel. Some years later in 1967 Yadin was able to obtain the Temple Scroll (11QT) from the Arab dealer who had had it in his possession for nearly twenty years. This scroll turned out to be the longest of all the scrolls, and it, together with the earlier scrolls were then installed in the newly built "Shrine of the Book" in Jerusa- lem. These scrolls (with the exception of some fragments) were studied, trans- lated and published by Israeli and American scholars well within ten years of their having been acquired. Due to the Middle East political situation, this was the end of any Israeli physical involvement with the scrolls for many years and at this point it is necessary to examine the role played by the archaeologists of the Kingdom of Jordan, which had occupied the Dead Sea area and the Old City of Jerusalem following the 1948 war.

In 1949, when a measure of peace had come to the Middle East, G.L. Hard- ing, Director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquity, with the help of Arab Legion soldiers, was able to identify the cave, subsequently named Cave One (1Q), from which the Bedouin had taken the first collection of scrolls. Harding, together with Father R. de Vaux, head of the Ecole Biblique, the French Ar- chaeological Institute in Jerusalem which at that time was in the Jordanian sector of the city, excavated the cave and found additional scroll fragments and Hellenistic and Roman pottery. In the meantime the Bedouin continued look- ing for further caves containing scrolls and this spurred the official Jordanian team to do the same. Between 1951 and 1956 ten more caves which contained scrolls, or more usually fragments of scrolls, were discovered. The final tally was five caves found by the Bedouin and six by Harding and de Vaux.

The most important find, Cave Four (4Q), contained more than 1,500 fragments from up to 600 different documents. This cave, situated in the marl ter- race nearest to the ruins of Qumran, had unfortunately been discovered and plundered by the Bedouin, so that much valuable archaeological data was lost.

Among the remaining caves, Cave Eleven was also of great importance as it had contained the "Temple Scroll" (11QT) and a non-biblical psalm scroll (11 QPs), among many other scroll fragments. Finally Cave Three must be men- tioned, lying a little to the north of Qumran, where archaeologists discovered a scroll written on copper (3Q15), the only such inscribed metal scroll known from antiquity. When the document was opened with the greatest of difficulty, it was found to contain a list of treasures and their hiding places. Whether this was an actual treasure list or a folkloric document has perhaps engendered the greatest controversy among scroll scholars. More will be said about 3Q15 in later chapters. About forty other caves showed signs of occupation but no scroll material was found in any of them.

At the latest count the scrolls found in the eleven caves consist of over 800 separate works copied by no fewer than 500 scribes2 and ranging in age from

2 Norman Golb, ' T h e Q u m r a n - E s s e n e H y p o t h e s i s : A Fiction of Scholarship' C C 1 0 9 : 3 6 (9 Dec. 1992) 1138-1143, here 1139.

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History of Scroll Finds and Literature Review 1

the end of the third century B C E to the first century CE. Most scholars agree with N. Golb that all the documents, except the Copper Scroll are scribal copies3, although G. Vermes considers that there are some original documents among the scrolls4. These works are mostly incomplete, indeed most remain only in a fragmentary form, nevertheless those that have been studied can be divided into three distinct groups. The first group contains biblical material, that is copies of every book of the Bible, except the book of Esther. These scroll fragments from biblical books were found mostly in multiple copies, the largest number belonging to the books of the Pentateuch. The second group contains copies of books that were already known, either belonging to the apocrypha or the pseudepigrapha. The third group contains works that were not known before the finds from the caves. To this last group belong the "Rule Scrolls" of one or more Jewish sects, interpretations (p e s h e r "ItOS) of biblical works and various miscellaneous documents such as horoscopes, curses and the unique Copper Scroll (3Q15). It is with the third group that this book is mainly concerned.

While the search for and excavation of the caves continued with reports being published in the Revue Biblique5, Harding and de Vaux decided to exca- vate Khirbet Qumran, the ruins situated in the neighbourhood of the caves, which had previously been considered by scholars to be the remains of a Ro- man fort6. The Qumran excavations took place from 1952 to 1956 and the neighbouring ruins of Ain Feshkha were investigated in 1958. Preliminary reports by de Vaux of these excavations also appeared in the Revue Biblique1 but no final reports were ever published by him. In 1959 de Vaux was invited by the British Academy to deliver the Schweich Lectures, entitled "Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls". The lectures were published in French in 19618 and in a revised English edition in 1973⁹; the latter edition provides the basis of much of the archaeological data used in this book. The official publications started to appear in 1955 under the title Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 110 and con-

' N o r m a n Golb, ' T h e Problem of Origin & Identification of the Dead Sea Scrolls' PAPS 124, (1980) 1 - 2 4 , here 5.

4 G e z a Vermes, ' Q u m r a n Forum Miscellanea I' JJS 4 3 : 2 (1992) 2 9 9 - 3 0 5 , here 300.

5 Roland de Vaux, 'Post-scriptum la Cachette des Manuscrits H é b r e u x ' RB 56 (1949) 2 3 4 - 2 3 7 ; 'La grotte des manuscrits H é b r e u x ' RBS6 A (1949) 5 8 6 - 6 0 9 ; 'A propos des Man- uscrits de la Mer M o r t e ' RB 57 (1950) 4 1 7 - 4 2 9 .

6 M . Avi-Yonah, Map of Roman Palestine 1:250,000 QDAP 5 : 4 (1936) 26.

7 'Fouilles au Khirbet Q u m r â n - Rapport Préliminaire', RB 60 (1953) 8 3 - 1 0 6 ; 'Explora- tion de la Région de Q u m r â n - Rapport Préliminaire' RB, 60 (1953) 5 4 0 - 5 6 1 ; 'Fouilles au Khirbet Q u m r â n . Rapport préliminaire sur la d e u x i è m e c a m p a g n e ' RB, 61 (1954) 2 0 6 - 2 3 6 ; 'Fouilles de Khirbet Q u m r â n - Rapport Préliminaire sur les 3e, 4e et 5e C a m p a g n e s ' , RB 63 (1956) 5 3 3 - 7 7 ; 'Fouilles de F e s h k h a ' RB 66 (1959) 2 2 5 - 2 5 5 .

8 L'Archéologie et les Manuscrits de la Mer Morte, The Schweich Lectures (London 1961).

' Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls,The Schweich Lectures 1959 (London 1973).

D. Barthélémy, J. Milik et al.. Discoveries in the Judaean Desert I, Qumran Cave I, ( O x f o r d 1955). Volume II dealt with the finds f r o m the M u r a b b a ' a t cave, see Note 19.

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8

The Community of the Scrolls

tinued with Vol. Ill in 1962", Vol. IV in 196512, Vol. V in 196913, Vol. VI in 197714 and Vol. VII in 198215. No further publications under this title appeared until 1990, when E. Tov published documents from Nahal Hever (Vol. VIII)16. Only in 1992, ten years after the previous volume dealing with Qumran documents appeared, was publication of Cave Four material resumed (Vol. IX)17

and in 1994 Volume Ten appeared1 8.

Additional Archaeological Discoveries in the Dead Sea Area

Before reviewing a small number of the hundreds of books and thousands of articles which speculate on and purport to explain the Qumran finds, it would be worthwhile to add a short description of the many other archaeological discoveries which were made during the same period in the region of the Dead Sea. In 1951 it was again the Bedouin in their search for treasure who found four caves in Wadi Murabba'at some twelve miles (c. 19 km) south-west of Qumran, containing artefacts as well as manuscripts. The caves were excavated by Harding and de Vaux who found traces of human occupation from the Chalcolithic, Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age (Judaean Monarchy), and the Ro- man and Medieval periods. The most important documents were from the second century CE including letters to and from Bar Kokhba which will be referred to later in this chapter. These finds were published in Discoveries in the Judean Desert II19. The Bedouin continued their search for treasure and in 1962 found more documents in caves at Wadi ed-Daliyeh, eight miles (c. 13 km) north of old Jericho. Paul Lapp investigated the caves and here too were found remains from the Middle Bronze Age, the fourth century BCE and the second Jewish Revolt (CE 132-134). The most important documents were

11 M. Baillet, J.T. Milik, R. de Vaux, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan, III;

Les 'Petites Grottes'de Qumran (Oxford 1962).

12 J.A. Sanders, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan IV, The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11 (Oxford 1965).

John M. Allegro, Arnold A. Anders, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan V, Qumran Cave 4 (I) (Oxford 1969).

14 R. de Vaux, J.T. Milik, et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert VI, Qumran Grotte 4 (II) (Oxford 1977).

15 M. Baillet, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert VII, Qumran Cave 4 (III) (Oxford 1982).

16 Emanuel Tov et al.. Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, Sinai and Palestine VIII, The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever - 8 Hev XII GR (Oxford 1990).

17 P.W. Skehan et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert IX, Qumran Cave 4 (IV) Oxford 1992).

18 Elisha Qimron and John Strugnell et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert X, Qumran Cave 4 (V) Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah (Oxford 1994).

19 P. Benoit, J.T. Milik, R. de Vaux, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert II, Les Grottes de Murabba'at (Oxford 1961).

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History of Scroll Finds and Literature Review 9 those from the fourth century BCE consisting of Samaritan papyri of a legal or administrative nature2".

The next important discoveries were made by Israeli archaeologists, alar- med that the Bedouin in their searches had started to raid the Israeli side of the border. With the help of the army they decided to organise their own "treasure hunt"2 1. In 1960 an expedition was mounted by a number of archaeologists who tackled the wadis and cliffs adjacent to the Dead Sea between En Gedi and Masada. A number of important discoveries was made, among them a Chalco- lithic treasure trove of ritual copper and iron objects, found in the "Cave of Treasure" at Nahal Mishmar. The second group of major discoveries came from the "Cave of Horror" and the "Cave of Letters" in Nahal Hever, where freedom fighters of the Bar Kokhba army and their families had hidden them- selves and their precious belongings during the struggle against the Romans in

132-135 CE. Among the documents found were more letters from Bar Kokhba and the archives of a widow named Babatha comprising family and commer- cial documents2 2. Mention must also be made of the excavation (1963-1965) by Israeli archaeologists led by Yadin of the palace fortress Masada, built by Herod (reigned BCE 3 7 - 4 ) for himself and his family. This fortress was taken over by the Zealot fighters in the first revolt against the Romans in c. 66 CE and was strongly defended by them until it fell to the Romans after a bitterly defended siege in 74 CE2 3. The importance of Masada to this book is that the documents found in the ruins of the buildings occupied by the last defenders include fragments of biblical manuscripts as well as a copy of the "Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifices", also known as "Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath"2 4, which is from the same work as that discovered in Cave Four ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ) and Cave Eleven (11Q5-6). (See Chapter 7).

In recent years the shores of the Dead Sea have been extensively surveyed2 5

and excavations carried out by Israeli archaeologists such as Menashe Har-El2 6

and Pessah Bar-Adon^{2 7}. In the late 1980s Joseph Patrich^{2 8} re-investigated the

20 F.M. Cross, 'The Discovery of the Samaritan Papyri1 BA 26 (1963) 110-121. Paul W.

Lapp, ' T h e Samaria Papyri' Archaeology 16:3 (1963) 2 0 4 - 2 0 6 .

21 Preliminary reports appeared in Y. Aharoni et al. ' T h e Expedition to the Judaean Desert, 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 6 1\ 1EJ 11,12 (1961-62).

22 Yigal Yadin, Bar Kokhba (London 1971); N. Lewis et al., The Documents from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters (Jerusalem 1989).

21 Josephus, War 2 : 4 0 8 ; 7 : 2 7 5 - 4 1 7 .

24 Geza Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English 3rd edit.(London 1987) 221.

25 M o s h e Kochavi, edit., Judea, Samaria and the Golan, Archaeological Survey 1967- 1968 (Jerusalem 1972) Hebrew.

26 T h e Route of Salt, Sugar and Balsam C a r a v a n s in the Judean Desert' GeoJournal 2 : 6 (1976) 5 4 9 - 5 5 6 .

27 'Another Settlement of the Judean Desert Sect at En el-Ghuweir on the Shores of the Dead S e a ' , BASOR, 277 (1977) 1 - 2 5 ; ' E x c a v a t i o n s in the Judean Desert' Atiqot, 9 (1989) Hebrew Series 1 - 9 1 .

28 Joseph Patrich, ' C a v e s of R e f u g e and Jewish Inscriptions on the Cliffs of Nahal Mich- mas' EI 18 (1985) Hebrew 153-166; ' H i d e o u t s in the Judean Wilderness', BAR Sept-Oct.

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1 0 The Community of the Scrolls

caves along the shore and in the foothills which were the subject of de Vaux's investigations, as well as other caves not previously examined. No more fragments of documents were found but other discoveries were made, such as a juglet, which may have contained precious balsam oil29, and pottery shards. In 1989 the Director of the Ecole Biblique commissioned Robert Donceel, his wife Pauline Donceel-Voute and other scholars to edit the excavation notes left by de Vaux and to re-examine the ruins of Qumran. It had been hoped that this review would be completed by 1990, the centenary of the Ecole Biblique, but the work proved to be extremely difficult and the first volume in the series appeared only in 1994³⁰. However, a preliminary report had been made which offered a new interpretation of the functions of Qumran3 1. In late 1995 a team of volunteers led by archaeologist Hannan Eshel started a new investigation of the area which resulted in the new discovery of four collapsed caves3 2. Accord- ing to an A P Jerusalem report a find has been made near the Qumran caves of

"two pieces of a clay vessel", inscribed in Hebrew, which appear to be a "2,000 year old shipping list"33.

After the war of 1967 the West Bank of the Jordan and with it the site of Qumran and the caves, as well as the Old City of Jerusalem, came again into Israeli hands. This recapture brought under Israeli jurisdiction all the Dead Sea Scroll fragments which had either been bought from the Bedouin or discovered by the archaeologists of the Jordan Department of Archaeology and the Ecole Biblique. These fragments had been kept at the Jerusalem Archaeological Mu- seum situated in the Old City, renamed the Rockefeller Museum in recognition of the generosity of the Rockefeller Foundation in supplying funds for their purchase. Individual scroll fragments were made available for exclusive study to a small group of scholars comprising four Catholic Priests, three Protestants and one atheist3 4 on whose deaths the documents were "inherited" by their students. At that time no Israeli scholar had access to the scrolls, and even non- Israeli scholars who were Jews were barred from studying the originals which

(1989)12-24; 'Khirbet Q u m r a n in the Light of New Archaeological Exploration in the Q u m - ran C a v e s ' , Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Qumran Site:

Present Realities and Future Prospects. Conference papers 14-17 December 1992, (New York 1994) 7 3 - 9 5 .

29 J. Patrich, B. Arubas, ' A Juglet Containing Balsam Oil ( ?) f r o m a C a v e Near Q u m r a n ' IEJ 3 9 : 1 - 2 (1989) 4 3 - 5 9 .

30 Jean-Baptiste Humbert, Alain C h a m b o n , edit. Fouilles de Khirbet Qumran et de Ain Feshka (Gottingen, 1994)

31 Robert Donceel, 'Reprise de travaux de publication des fouilles au Khirbet Q u m r a n ' RB 9 9 : 3 (1992) 5 5 7 - 5 7 3 .

32 Patrick C o c k b u r n , 'Archaeologists start dig for more Dead Sea Scrolls' Sydney Morn- ing Herald, (20.12.95) 7.

33 E. Eshel ' C o m m e n t on Ostraca' A P Jerusalem Report (Feb. 1996). Susan Stanley, ' New Texts f r o m Q u m r a n ' Archaeology M a y / J u n e 1996, 21. Byline S.F. 'Scroll Hunters at Q u m - ran Discover Inscribed Sherds' BAR 2 2 : 3 ( M a y / J u n e 1996) 14.

34 Edward M. Cook, Solving the Mysteries of the Dead Sea Scrolls, New Light on the Bible (Grand Rapids 1994), 38.

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Index of Persons

Archaeologists and Travellers pre-1947 C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u M. 85, 112, 165

Conder, C l a u d e R. 101, 110, 113, 122, 165 Costigan, C. 109,

D a l m a n G. 143 Drake, Tyrwhitt 112, 165 Huntington, Ellsworth 1 2 1 , 1 3 3 Jacotin, Pierre 100, 109 Kinglake, A. W. 151

Kitchener H. H., later Lord Kitchener 101, 110, 165

Lange, R. de 89

Lynch, W. F. 2 6 - 7 , 109, 175

M a s t e r m a n E. W. G. 120-1, 1 2 6 - 7 , 175, 1 7 7 - 8

M o l y n e u x , T. H. 109 Pfeiffer, Ida 151

Robinson, Edward 101, 109, 120 S a u l c y F . d e 27, 101, 110-11, 120, 175 S h a p i r a H . 8 5 - 8 6 , 112

Smith, E. 101, 109

Tristram, H. B. 100-01, 110-11, 175

Aharoni, Yohanan 90, 114, 140 Allegro, John M a r c o 12, 86, 102 Arubas, Benny 93, 172

Bar-Adon, Pessah 9 , 9 0 , 101-3, 107, 1 6 7 - 8, 174, 179

Buit, M. du 103, 138

Cross, Frank M o o r e 12, 67, 91, 101-2, 106, 142, 178

Donceel, Robert; Donceel-Voüte, Pauline 10, 112, 1 2 4 - 5 , 1 4 3 - 4 , 147-

158

Eshel, Esther 10, 3 7 , 7 1 - 2 , 157 Eshel, Hanan 10, 37, 7 1 - 2 , 93, 103, 167 Franken, H. J. 155

Hachlili, Rachael, 1 8 5 - 6 Hadas, Gideon 117

Harding, G. Lankaster 6 - 7 , 87, 97, 178 Har-El, M e n a s h e 9, 74, 1 0 4 - 5 , 116, 118-

122, 133, 143, 196 Hohlfelder, Robert L. 135 Lapp, Paul 8, 91

s post-1947 Mazar, B. 1 1 2 , 1 3 0

M i l i k J . T. 12, 1 0 1 - 2 , 152, 178-9, 187 Misgav H. 93

Negev, A b r a h a m 134 Netzer, Ehud 1 8 3 - 5 Patrich, Joseph 9, 93, 1 7 2 - 3 Reich, Rony 1 4 7 - 8 Safrai, Baruch 140 Schulz, Siegfried 127

Steckoll, Solomon 1 3 9 - 4 0 , 1 6 6 - 9 Steiner, M. L, 155

Strobel, August 116, 128-31 Strugnell, J. 11

Sukenik, E. L. 5, 67, 97

Vaux, Father Roland de 3, 6, 7, 11, 87, 97, 101-6, 123-9, 1 3 7 - 4 5 , 149-163, 1 6 5 - 178, 185, 189

W a c h s m a n n , Shelly 118

Yadin, Yigael 5 - 6 , 9, 14, 45, 73, 90, 92, 129-30, 157, 159

Zeuner, F. E. 150-1, 160

Historical Persons A l e x a n d e r Janneus, King 37, 68, 72, 106,

126, 179

Babatha 9, 55, 86, 90, 159

Bar K o k h b a 9, 55, 88, 9 0 - 3 , 98, 106-8, 116, 140, 142, 159, 162, 178, 188, 195 Curtius R u f u s , Quintus 92

David, King 45, 69, 105, 135 Demetrius, King 124, 185, 196 Dio Cassius 140

Dio of Prusa 24, 26, 31, 59 Diodorus 100, 117 Eusebius 2 4 - 5 , 77, 83, 99

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224

Index of Persons Hegesippus 2 4 - 5 , 3 1 , 7 7

Herod the Great, see also Herodian in Subjects Index 9, 28-9, 64, 89, 106,

114, 116, 123, 135, 143, 154, 163, 170, 184, 189, 195, 197

Hippolytus 2 4 , 3 1 Idrisi, el- 118 Jeremiah 56, 82-3, 85

Jesus Christ 14, 78, 134, 140, 187 Josephus, Flavius 2, 15, 20, 22-5, 28-32,

42, 49, 56-75, 79, 82-3, 92, 99-100, 108, 116-8, 131, 139, 141, 163, 182, 190, 193

Jonathan, High Priest 70-2, 124, 143, 185, 196

Jonathan, King, see Alexander Janneus, King

John Hyrcanus, High Priest 75, 162, 182 Jotham, King 138

Justin Martyr 77 Martianus Capella 32

Nebuchadnezer, King 76, 82, 103, 123, 139, 179

Origen 83

Philo Judaeus 2, 22-5, 28-30, 42, 47, 49, 56, 59-68, 108, 127, 192

Pliny the Elder 2, 20, 22, 24-7, 30-2, 49, 56, 59, 62, 65-6, 93, 106, 112, 114-5, 127, 175, 196

Porphyry 3 1 - 2 Ptolemy, Claudius 98 Solinus, Gaius Julius 3 1 , 5 9 Solomon, King 45, 69, 104, 115, 135 Synesius of Cyrene 2 4 - 5

Tacitus, Cornelius 100 Timotheus, Patriarch 1 3 , 8 4 , 8 7 Uzziah, King 114, 138, 179, 185 Vespasian, Emperor 117, 137, 141

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Index of Subjects

Agriculture 28, 40, 43-4, 47-8, 76, 101, 104-5, 107, 111, 127, 132, 134, 152, 161, 173, 176-9, 182-3, 192-3 Aqueduct 126-7, 184

Arab(s), Arabian 5 - 6 , 8 4 - 5 , 100, 109-12, 115, 118, 120, 175

Arabic 84, 89, 95, 112, 175, 178 Aramaic 89-90

Armour, see Weapon(s) Arrowhead(s) 138, 142-3, 191 Asphalt, see Bitumen

Balsam 3, 10, 93, 105, 107, 112, 153, 196 Bedouin 5-9, 87-92, 171, 173, 177-8, 187 Bitumen, Asphalt 3,99-100, 105, 107,

117, 119, 151, 196 Boat(s), see Ship(s) Bones, Animal 160 Bones, Fowl 1 6 0 , 1 8 6 - 7 Bones, Human, see Skeletons

Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age 8, 88, 174 Byzantine 89, 146, 174, 176, 179 Cairo Geniza, see Geniza, Cairo Carbon 14, see Dating, Carbon Fourteen Celibacy, Celibate 2, 30, 49, 56, 65-6, 193 Cemetery(ies), Graves, Tombs 49, 95,

112, 139, 146, 165-70, 185-6, 191, 196, 199

Chalcolithic Age 5, 8-9, 81, 88, 90, 93-4, 171-3, 194

Child, Children 30-1, 35-6, 38, 49, 57, 6 2 - 3 , 6 4 - 6 6 , 7 7 , 166-8, 191, 193, 199 Christian(s), Christianity 5, 1 3 - 5 , 4 9 , 7 8 ,

84, 140, 146, 165, 172, 187

Cistern(s) 44, 102-6, 125-40, 144, 150-1, 173, 176, 190, 206

Climate 131, 134

Cloth, Clothes, Clothing 86, 88, 90-2, 130, 140

Coenaculum 147-8

Coin(s) 93, 113, 138, 156, 161-4, 175, 178, 190, 192, 197

Copper Scroll 6 - 7 , 90, 95-6, 102, 108, 141-2, 187-9, 195

Customs, Customs Post 104, 123-4, 144, 155, 185, 189, 196

Dates (fruit) 3, 105, 107, 118, 161, 176 Dating, Carbon Fourteen 13,74,78,90, 117 Dosithean 75

Dye, Dye Works 152, 164, 189, 196 Earthquake(s) 74, 137, 139-40, 175-6 Fort(s), Fortress, Fortification 7, 9, 20, 89,

103-8, 114-5, 123, 130-1, 138-44, 174, 178-81, 185, 191, 196 Frankincense 44, 114, 196 Geniza 81-2, 97, 189, 195

Geniza, Cairo (Fostat) 13, 19, 34-5, 81, 8 7 , 9 2

Glass 91, 93, 158-9, 190, 192 Grave(s), tomb(s) see Cemetery Greek(s) 22-24, 29, 58-9, 66, 83, 89-90,

98, 118, 147 Half Shekel, see Shekel Hasidim 59, 76-7, 106-8

Hasmonaean 3, 5, 36, 66, 71, 77, 108, 114, 123-4, 131, 135, 143, 154, 179, 182-5, 189, 194, 196-7

Hellenistic 6, 58, 67, 77, 93, 139, 147, 174, 179, 182, 186

Herodian, see also Herod the Great 3, 5, 66, 93-4, 108, 143, 154, 182-4, 188 Impurity, see Ritual Purity

Incense 40-1, 82, 105, 112 Inkwell(s) 123-4, 145, 148 Inn 155, 164, 173, 186, 189, 196 Iron Age 8 , 8 8 , 9 4 , 101-4, 126, 134, 152-

3, 155, 165, 172, 174, 178, 192 Islam, Islamic, Muslim 5, 165, 171, 173 Jar(s), ceramic, see also Pottery 46, 80, 8 2 - 8 8 , 9 4 , 9 6 - 7 , 152-6, 160, 162, 171, 173, 189

Jerusalem Temple, see Temple, Jerusalem Judaean Monarchy 3, 8, 103-5, 114, 123,

196 Karaite(s) 13

Lamelek Jar Handle(s) 1 0 2 - 4 , 1 7 8 Lamp(s) 83, 88, 94, 155-6, 171-2 Leather 8 3 - 8 7 , 9 0 , 9 2 , 146, 153, 176-7 Linen, Textiles 45, 89, 152, 177 Maccabaean Period 67-8, 70, 72 Magariya 8 4 - 5

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226

Index of Subjects Medieval Age, Middle Age 8, 12-3, 82

Membership (of Sect) 6 1 - 3 , 6 6 , 193 Middle Age, see Medieval Age Middle Bronze Age, see Bronze Age Mill(s), Millstones 44, 161, 173 Miqvah, Miqvaot, Ritual Bath(s) 61, 75,

125, 128-31, 136, 151-2, 184

Mishnah 15, 24, 36, 70, 72, 112, 128, 130, 159, 163, 169, 186-7

Monastery, Monastic, Monks 1, 3, 11-12, 20-1, 27, 34, 41, 45, 49, 83, 89, 94-6,

110, 121-2, 138, 145, 148, 158, 164, 171-2, 179, 190

Mould(s) (Pottery or Glass) 155-9 Muslim, see Islam

Myrrh 114, 196

Nabataean(s) 90, 115, 123, 128, 134-5, 156, 178

Nazarite(s) 7 6 - 7

New Testament 3, 24, 73, 79, 99, 118, 140, 147, 159, 187

Oath(s), Vow(s) 28-9, 35, 38, 55, 6 1 - 4 , 68, 193

Ostracon (Ostraca) 10, 103, 107, 156-7 Paleo-Hebrew 8 5 , 9 1

Palaeography 5, 72, 74, 78, 103, 188 Palm(s) 2 6 , 3 1 , 9 3 , 105-7, 127, 133, 175-

6, 179, 191

Perfume(s), Perfumery 105, 107, 112, 153, 164, 189, 196

Pharisee(s) 13, 20, 23, 36, 67-73, 77, 79, 96-7, 194

Polygamy 53-4, 65-6

Pottery, Sherds 10, 83, 88-9, 92-94, 102, 145, 151-6, 160, 166, 170-5, 178-9, 184, 190, 192

Potter's Workshop 128, 150-6, 164, 171, 189, 196

Purity, see Ritual Purity

Property, Private 39, 41, 63, 66, 193 Rain, Rainfall 44, 125-6, 131-4, 198 Rape 54, 57

Rehabite(s) 77

Refectory 21, 129, 145, 147, 154-5 Ritual Bath(s), see Miqvah, Miqvaot Ritual Purity, Impurity 36, 52, 55, 57, 6 0 -

1, 68, 73, 75, 77, 128-9, 151-2, 155, 160, 169, 177, 183-9

Roman(s), Roman Period, see also Rome in Geographical Index 1, 6 - 9 , 12, 24, 28, 65, 73-4, 83, 88-99, 102, 104, 106,

115, 117, 121-3, 130-1, 135, 137, 140- 3, 147-8, 152, 154, 162, 172, 174, 179,

182, 184, 189, 195, 197

Sacrifice(s) 29-30, 32, 36, 4 0 - 4 1 , 44, 6 0 - 1, 66, 71-2, 74, 77, 105, 160, 193-4 Sadducee(s) 12-3, 19-20, 23, 36, 67, 6 9 -

72, 77, 79-80, 194

Salt 3 , 4 4 , 105, 107, 118-9, 185, 196 Salt Tax, see also Taxes, Tolls 124,185,

196

Samaritan(s) 9, 67, 75-7, 82, 92, 130, 194 Scriptorium 21, 124, 144-6, 148, 196 Scroll Community 3, 21, 33-4, 36, 48,

50-2, 53-80, 170, 173, 187, 193-4 Seafaring 4 4 - 5 , 75

Second Temple Period 1-3, 5, 14-5, 41, 50, 53, 58, 66-7, 76, 80, 86, 90, 98, 104-8, 115, 119, 122, 130, 142, 155-8, 169-170, 173, 175, 181-2, 187, 190, 192, 194, 197

Shekel, Half Shekel 38, 93, 162-3, 189, 197 Sherds, see Pottery

Ship(s), Boat(s) 100, 105, 109, 116-9, 151, 179, 196

Skeleton(s), Human, Bones, Human 49, 89-92, 95, 140, 165-9, 191, 199 Slave(s), Slavery 19, 6 4 - 6 , 193 Smithy 152

Spice(s), Spice Trade 105, 112, 114-5, 119, 123, 196

Stone Artefacts 88,93, 157-8, 190, 192 Talmud 15, 24, 32, 70, 79, 83, 159, 182-3,

186-7

Tannery 153, 164, 169, 176-7, 185, 189 Tax(es), Tolls, see also Salt Tax 104,

114-5, 119, 124, 161-4, 185, 196 Temple, Jerusalem 5, 21, 29, 36, 38-41,

4 4 - 7 , 55, 60-1, 6 6 - 8 , 70-2, 75, 77, 86, 96, 105, 127, 130, 135, 142, 156,

160-4, 183-5, 188-9, 193-4, 197 Tetradrachmae 162-3

Textile(s) see Linen Tithe 68

Toll(s) see Tax(es)

Tomb(s), Grave(s), see Cemetery(ies) Tower(s), Watch 102, 104, 109, 123-4,

137-9, 142-4, 152, 181, 191, 196, 205 Trade Route(s) 3, 104, 114-23, 155, 164,

175, 185, 191, 196, 202 Villa Rustica 143 Virginity 54 Vow(s) see Oath(s)

Watch Tower(s), see Tower(s), Watch Water 40, 43-4, 61, 75, 125-36, 140, 150-1, 164, 173, 175-7, 184, 191 Way Station(s) 104, 122-4, 155, 164, 173,

196

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Index of Subjects 227

Weapon(s), Armour, see also Arrow- heads 28, 39, 42, 46-8, 65-6, 88, 138,

152, 191, 193

Wine, Wine Press 43-4, 76-7, 151-2, 155 Woman, Women 30-2, 35-6, 38-9, 41,

49-57, 60, 64-66, 77, 81, 91, 131, 138, 166-8, 184, 191, 193, 199

Writing Table(s) 144-7

Zadok, Zadokite(s) 19, 69-72, 74, 80, 82, 87, 194

Zealot(s) 9, 12-3, 20, 67, 71, 73-4, 130, 141-3, 194

(29)

(30)

Index of Geographical Names

Abu Tabaq, Khirbet, see Khirbet Abu Tabaq

A d u m i m Ascent, M a ' a l e A d u m i m 104, 112 A i n F e s h k a 3 , 7 , 2 2 , 107, 109-11, 113,

120-2, 149, 153-4, 1 5 6 - 8 , 161, 1 6 3 - 4 , 170, 1 7 4 - 8 , 192

A m m a n 144, 146, 150, 154, 161 Arabia 90, 99, 104-5, 114, 196 Babylon 12, 82, 84, 103, 123, 181-2 B e t h A r a b a h 99, 1 0 1 - 3

Buqei'a, Biqah 101-3, 121, 173, 178-9, 192

Callirrhoe 99, 116

City of Salt 9 8 - 1 0 3 , 106, 114, 205 Daliyeh, Wadi ed-, see Wadi ed-Daliyeh Damascus 12, 35, 40, 59, 115

Dead Sea 2, 5 - 9 , 20, 2 5 - 7 , 31, 4 4 - 5 , 5 9 - 6 0 , 8 1 - 9 2 , 9 8 - 1 1 2 , 114-123, 125-6, 132-4, 141, 147, 151, 164, 171-2, 185, 191, 194, 196, 201, 204

Ein el-Ghuweir 102-3, 107, 109, 154, 167-8, 174, 179, 186, 199 E i n e t - T u r a b a 103, 107, 122, 174 Elath 104, 115, 119, 196, 202 'En Boqeq 107

En Gedi 9, 20, 2 5 - 7 , 32, 8 8 - 9 , 9 8 - 9 , 1 0 1 - 9, 112, 116-7, 119-22, 141, 153, 1 7 4 - 5 Ezian Geber 104, 115

Gaza 115

G o m o r r a h 3 1 , 9 8 - 1 0 0 , 110-11 Hiam el-Sagha 167, 186

Jericho 3, 8, 8 3 - 4 , 91, 93, 9 6 - 7 , 109, 111- 12, 118, 120-2, 130, 135, 138-9, 141, 151, 154, 164, 168, 170, 179-190, 195-6 Jerusalem 5 - 6 , 10, 14, 16, 20, 2 2 - 3 , 25,

36, 39, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 8 - 7 6 , 78, 8 1 - 5 , 89, 91, 9 6 , 9 9 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 109-10, 116, 118-23,

126-7, 130, 132, 135, 141-8, 1 5 4 - 6 1 , 163-4, 179, 181-89, 192-3, 195-6, 198 Jordan, K i n g d o m of 6, 10, 15, 87, 89, 115,

118, 139, 148-9, 1 5 4 - 5 , 166, 177 Jordan River 10, 26, 31, 44, 103, 107,

109, 118, 151, 164, 174, 187 Ketef Yeriho 9 3 - 5

Khirbet Abu Tabaq 1 0 2 , 1 7 8

Khirbet el-Maqari 178 Khirbet el-Mird 8 9 , 9 4 , 102, 195 Kirbet es-Samra 102, 178 Kirbet Samra 174

Kidron Wadi, see Wadi Kidron Lake Tiberias, see Tiberias Lake Lisan, Peninsula 1 0 0 , 1 1 6

M a ' a l e A d u m i m , see A d u m i m Ascent M a d a b a 100, 115, 118

Maqari, Khirbet el-, see Khirbet el-Maqari Mar Saba (Monastery) 27, 110, 1 2 0 - 2 , 172 M a s a d a 9, 13, 7 3 - 4 , 89, 92, 9 4 - 5 , 9 8 - 9 ,

129-32, 141-2, 157, 195 Mazin, Wadi, see Wadi Mazin M e z a d H a s i d i m 1 0 6 - 1 0 8 Middin 99, 1 0 1 - 3

Mird, Khirbet el, see Khirbet el-Mird Mispeh Shalem 174

Mujib, see Wadi M u j i b

Mukallik, Wadi, see Wadi Mukallik M u r a b b a ' a t , Wadi, see Wadi M u r a b b a ' a t N a g H a m m a d i 83, 93

Nahal Hever 8, 9, 55, 86, 8 9 - 9 0 , 92, 9 4 - 5, 107, 116, 140, 159, 195

Nahal M i s h m a r 9, 81, 8 9 - 9 0 , 194 Nahal O g 116, 119, 196

Nahal Zohar 104

Negev 103, 1 1 4 - 5 , 119, 128, 131-2, 187 Nibshan 99, 1 0 1 - 3

Persia 123 Petra 134

Qasr el-Yahud 103, 174, 179 Red Sea 45, 104, 115, 135, 155, 196 R o m e , (see also R o m a n in Subject

Index) 2 2 - 3 , 88, 9 2 - 3 , 99, 106, 108, 142, 196

R u j m el-Bahr 101, 103, 116, 119, 174, 179, 196

R u j m esh-Shajra 174, 179

Salt Ascent, Salt Route 106, 116, 121, 124, 186, 196

Samaria 91, 147, 154

Samra, Khirbet es-, see Khirbet es-Samra Samra, Khirbet, see Khirbet Samra Secacah, see also Wadi Secacah 99, 1 0 1 - 3

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230

Index of Geographical Names Sodom 26, 3 1 , 9 8 - 1 0 0 , 110, 119

Tiberias, Lake 31, 117-8, 131 Trans Jordan, see Jordan, Kingdom of Wadi ed-Daliyeh 8, 89, 91, 9 4 - 5 , 1 9 4 - 5 Wadi Kidron 122

Wadi Mazin 107

Wadi Mukallik 111,116 Wadi Mujib 85

Wadi Murabba'at 8, 8 8 - 9 , 9 4 - 5 , 106-7, 142, 167, 174, 195

Wadi Qumran 87, 102, 121, 126, 166 Wadi Secacah 102

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Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum

Alphabetical Index

Avemarie, Friedrich: Tora und Leben. 1996. Volume 55.

Becker, Hans-Jürgen: see Schäfer, Peter

Cansdale, Lena: Q u m r a n and the Essenes. 1997. Volume 60.

Chester, Andrew: Divine Revelation and Divine Titles in the Pentateuchal Targumim. 1986.

Volume 14.

Cohen, Martin Samuel:The Shicur Q o m a h : T e x t s and Recencions. 1985. Volume 9.

Ego, Beate: Targum Scheni zu Ester. 1996. Volume 54.

Engel, Anja: see Schäfer, Peter

Gleßmer, Uwe: Einleitung in die Targume zum Pentateuch. 1995. Volume 48.

Goodblatt, David. The Monarchie Principle. 1994. Volume 38

Grözinger, Karl: Musik und Gesang in der Theologie der f r ü h e n jüdischen Literatur. 1982.

Volume 3.

Halperin, David J.: The Faces of the Chariot. 1988. Volume 16.

Houtman, Alberdina: Mishnah a n d T o s e f t a . 1997. Volume 59.

Herrmann, Klaus (Ed.): Massekhet-Hekhalot. 1994. Volume 39.

- see Schäfer, Peter

Herzer, Jens: Die Paralipomena Jeremiae. 1991. Volume 43.

Hezser, Catherine: Form, Function, and Historical Significance of the Rabbinic Story in Yerushalmi Neziqin. 1993. Volume 37.

Hirschfelder, Ulrike: see Schäfer, Peter

Instone Brewer, David: Techniques and Assumptions in Jewish Exegesis before 70 CE. 1992.

Volume 30.

Ilan, Tal: Jewish Women in G r e c o - R o m a n Palestine. 1995. Volume 44.

Ipta, Kerstin: see Schäfer, Peter

Jacobs, Martin: Die Institution des jüdischen Patriarchen. 1995. Volume 52.

- see Schäfer, Peter

Kasher, Aryeh: The Jews in Hellenistic and R o m a n Egypt. 1985. Volume 7.

- Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs. 1988. Volume 18.

- Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel. 1990. Volume 21.

Krauss, Samuel: The Jewish-Christian Controversy f r o m the Earliest Times to 1789. Ed. by W H o r b u r y . Volume 1: 1996. Volume 56.

Kuhn, Peter: Offenbarungsstimmen im Antiken J u d e n t u m . 1989. Volume 20.

Kuyt, Annelies: The 'Descent' to the Chariot. 1995. Volume 45.

Lange, Nicholas de: G r e e k Jewish Texts f r o m the Cairo Genizah. 1996. Volume 51.

Lohmann, Uta: see Schäfer, Peter

Luttikhuizen, Gerard fl. The Revelation of Elchasai. 1985. Volume 8.

Mach, Michael: Entwicklungsstadien des jüdischen Engelglaubens in vorrabbinischer Zeit.

1992. Volume 34.

Mendels, Doron. The Land of Israel as a Political Concept in H a s m o n e a n Literature. 1987.

Volume 15.

Mutins, Hans Georg von: see Schäfer, Peter Necker, Gerold: see Schäfer, Peter

Olyan, Saul M.: A Thousand Thousands Served Him. 1993. Volume 36.

Otterbach, Rina: see Schäfer, Peter

Prigent, Pierre: Le Judaisme et I1 image. 1990. Volume 24.

Reeg, Gottfried (Hrsg): Die Geschichte von den Z e h n Märtyrern. 1985. Volume 10.

Renner, Lucie: see Schäfer, Peter

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Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum Rohrbacher-Sticker, Claudia: see Schäfer, Peter

Salvesen, Alison (Ed.): Origen's Hexapla and Fragments. 1997. Volume 58.

Samely, Alexander: The Interpretation of Speech in the Pentateuch Targums. 1992.

Volume 27.

Schäfer, Peter: Der Bar-Kokhba-Aufstand. 1981. Volume 1.

- Hekhalot-Studien. 1988. Volume 19.

Schäfer, Peter (Hrsg): Geniza-Fragmente zur Hekhalot-Literatur. 1984. Volume 6.

Schäfer, Peter, Rina Otterbach (Volume 2), Gottfried Reeg, Klaus Herrmann, Claudia Rohr- bacher-Sticker, Guido Weyer (Hrsg): Konkordanz zur Hekhalot-Literatur. Volume 1.1986.

Volume 12. - Volume 2.1988. Volume 13.

Schäfer, Peter, Hans-Jürgen Becker, Klaus Herrmann, Ulrike Hirschfelder (Volume 1), Gerold Necker (Volume 1), Lucie Renner (Volume 3), Claudia Rohrbacher-Sticker (Volume 2-4), Stefan Siebers (Volume 2-4) (Ed.): Übersetzung der Hekhalot-Literatur. Volume 1: §§

1-80. 1995. Volume 46. - Volume 2: §§ 81-334. 1987. Volume 17. - Volume 3: §§ 335-597.

1989. Volume 22. - Volume 4: §§ 598-985. 1991. Volume 29.

Schäfer, Peter, Hans-Jürgen Becker, Anja Engel (I), Kerstin Ipta (I), Gerold Necker (IV, V), Uta Lohmann (I), Martina Urban, Gert Wildensee (Ed.): Synopse zum Talmud Yerushalmi.

- I: Ordnung Zeracim. 1/1-2: Traktate Berakhot und Pe'a. 1991. Volume 35. - 1/3-5:

Traktate Demai bis Shevicit. 1992. Volume 33.- 1/6-11: Traktate Terumot bis Bikkurim.

1992. Volume 31. - IV/1-8: Ordnung Neziqin. V: Ordnung Toharot - Traktat Nidda. 1995.

Volume 47.

Schäfer, Peter, Margarete Schlüter, Hans Georg von Mutins (Hrsg): Synopse zur Hekhalot- Literatur. 1981. Volume 2.

Schäfer, Peter, Martin Jacobs, Claudia Rohrbacher-Sticker, Shaul Shaked, Giuseppe Veltri (Ed.): Magische Texte aus der Kairoer Geniza. Volume 1.1994. Volume 42.

Schlüter, Margarete: see Schäfer, Peter

Schmidt, Francis: Le Testament Grec d'Abraham. 1986. Volume 11.

Schroeder, Bernd: Die 'väterlichen Gesetze'. 1996. Volume 53.

Schwartz, Daniel R.: Agrippa 1.1990. Volume 23.

Schwemer, Anna Maria: Studien zu den frühjüdischen Prophetenlegenden. Vitae Propheta- rum. Volume 1:1995. Volume 49. - Volume II: 1996. Volume 50.

Shaked, Shaul: see Schäfer, Peter

Shatzman, Israel. The Armies of the Hasmonaeans and Herod. 1991. Volume 25.

Siebers, Stefan: see Schäfer, Peter

Swartz, Michael D.: Mystical Prayer in Ancient Judaism. 1992. Volume 28.

Sysling, Harry: Tehiyyat Ha-Metim. 1996. Volume 57.

Urban, Martina: see Schäfer, Peter

van Loopik, Marcus (Übers, u. komm.): The Ways of the Sages and the Way of the World.

1991. Volume 26.

Veltri, Giuseppe: Eine Tora für den König Talmai. 1994. Volume 41.

Wewers, Gerd A.: Probleme der Bavot-Traktate. 1984. Volume 5.

Weyer, Guido: see Schäfer, Peter Wildensee, Gert: see Schäfer, Peter

Wilson, Walter !.: The Mysteries of Righteousness. 1994. Volume 40.

For a complete catalogue please write to the publisher Mohr Siebeck, P.O. Box 2040, D-72010 Tübingen.